Ministries were created during the reign. The system of administrative - public administration. The system of public administration in the Old Russian state

At the beginning of the XIX century. sectoral management bodies were reformed. The old Peter's colleges, liquidated by Catherine II and restored by Paul I, no longer met the more complicated tasks of governing the country. September 8, 1802 Alexander I signed the manifesto "On the Establishment of Ministries", which laid the foundation for the reform of the executive branch. The manifesto established 8 ministries: military ground forces, naval forces, internal affairs, foreign affairs, justice, finance, commerce and public education. The boards were replaced by a new form of executive power, where the affairs of each department were decided solely by the minister, responsible only to the emperor. Thus, in

Russia finally established the branch principle of management organization.

Ministers were appointed by the monarch and were responsible to him. Initially, it was assumed that a "countersignature" would be introduced, i.e. confirmation by the signature of the minister of imperial decrees, but this innovation did not take place.

Initially, the structure and functions of ministries were not yet clearly defined. But even in this form, the establishment of ministries instead of collegiums was a step forward, since they acted more quickly, the personal responsibility of leaders and executors increased, and the importance of offices and office work expanded.

The functions of the ministries were extensive and often went beyond their titles. Thus, the Ministry of the Interior, in addition to organizing and maintaining public order, also managed industry and construction. Ministry of Education, apart from leadership educational institutions(from elementary schools to universities), managed museums, printing houses, libraries, trained personnel for the state apparatus, carried out censorship.

The establishment of the ministries marked a further bureaucratization of management and the improvement of the central apparatus. Each minister had a deputy (comrade minister) and an office. The ministries were subdivided into departments headed by directors, departments into departments headed by heads of departments, and departments into tables headed by head clerks.

The completion of the ministerial reform was the publication in 1811, developed under the guidance of M.M. Speransky "The General Establishment of Ministries". This document determined the legal status of the new bodies. The power of ministers was designated in it as top executive, directly subordinate to the emperor. The apparatus of the ministries was divided into departments (presences) according to the areas of activity and offices in which office work was carried out.

The law established the exact delimitation of the functions of the ministries, the uniform principles of their organization and the general procedure for the passage of cases in them, pursued the principle of strict unity of command and subordination within the ministerial divisions, determined the relationship of the ministries to other bodies of higher government controlled. This significantly improved the system of ministries, created in 1802, and gave it harmony.

By this time, the number of ministries had increased to 12. The Ministry of Commerce was abolished, and the Ministry of Police was added to the previously established ministries and the State Treasury, the General Directorate of Spiritual Affairs of Different Religions, the General Directorate of Audit of State Accounts and the General Directorate of Railways were added to the ministries. Ministers were introduced into the Senate.

Simultaneously with the ministries, the Committee of Ministers was created. True, the regulation on it was published only in 1812. In Committee of Ministers(Cabinet), in addition to the ministers, included the chairmen of the departments of the State Council, the secretary of state (head of the State Council), the chief executives of departments and some of the highest dignitaries of the empire appointed by the king. Under Nicholas I, the heir to the throne was a member of the Committee of Ministers.

It was an advisory body under the tsar, which had interdepartmental and supradepartmental functions, i.e. he resolved issues that concerned several ministries at once or exceeded the competence of the minister. In addition, the Committee exercised control over governors and provincial boards, considered bills, reports of ministries, and solved personnel problems. All his decisions were approved by the emperor, except for minor matters (appointment of pensions, benefits, etc.). The Committee of Ministers replaced the emperor in his absence, and in his presence supervised the highest governing bodies. Thus, in the face Committee of Ministers Russia received at the beginning of the XIX century. the highest administrative legislative body, which was abolished only in April 1906 in connection with the establishment State Duma.

The establishment of the State Council and the transformation of the ministries in 1811 completed the reorganization of the central government, which, with minor changes, lasted until 1917.

After ascending the throne, Alexander I proclaimed that he would govern the country "according to the laws and according to the heart of our late august empress, Empress Catherine the Great." He began his reign with the preparation of a series of radical reforms. So on September 20, 1802, ministries were created instead of the collegiums of Peter I.

At first, eight of them were formed: military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, justice, finance, commerce and public education. In order to unite the activities of the ministries, all the ministers had to, gathering at general meetings, form a "committee of ministers", at whose meetings the new emperor was often present. Instead of the former collegiate principle, sole power and responsibility were put at the basis of the new system: the minister alone managed his department with the help of the office and subordinate institutions, he alone had to be responsible for all the omissions in the ministry. To discuss the most important state affairs and laws, Alexander arranged an "indispensable council", consisting of twelve members, instead of random and temporary meetings under Empress Catherine II and Emperor Paul I.

The first Russian ministers:

Count Alexander Romanovich Vorontsov (1741-1805), Foreign Secretary. Nephew of the chancellor of the times of Elizabeth and Catherine II. He graduated from the Strasbourg military school. Received the title of earl in 1760. A year later, he was appointed chargé d'affaires in Austria. In 1762-1764 he was a minister plenipotentiary in England. The first Russian to be awarded an honorary doctorate in classical literature at Oxford (1763). From 1764 to 1768 he was envoy to Holland. In 1773-1794 - President of the College of Commerce, member of the Commission on Commerce. From 1779 he was a senator. As a member of the State Council (since 1787) he was one of the leaders of Russia's foreign policy. After helping Alexander Radishchev publish the book Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow, he was forced to resign in 1792. In 1802 he was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs with the rank of Chancellor. He sought to ensure the foreign policy independence of Russia from France. In early 1804 he retired for health reasons.

Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin (1743-1816), Minister of Justice. Born in Kazan in a family of small landed nobles. In 1762, he was called up to serve as a soldier in the Preobrazhensky Guards Regiment, which participated in the palace coup, as a result of which Catherine II ascended the throne. After 10 years, he was promoted to officer; participated in the suppression of the Pugachev uprising. In 1773 he published his poetic works. In 1777 he was dismissed from military service as a collegiate adviser. After composing "Ode to Felitsa" (1782), addressed to the Empress, he received a snuffbox from Catherine II as a gift. In 1784, the empress appointed the poet the first Olonets governor. He remained in this position until October 1785. In 1785-1788 he was the governor of Tambov. In 1791-1793 he was the cabinet-secretary of Catherine II. In 1794 he was appointed president of the College of Commerce. Under Paul I, he was the ruler of the office of the Supreme Imperial Council and the state treasurer. In 1802, with the rank of Privy Councilor, he was appointed Minister of Justice. In 1803, he resigned: Alexander I removed him from business, explaining this by the inadmissibility of too "zealous service." Last years lived in the winter in St. Petersburg, and in the summer - in the estate of Zvanka near Novgorod.

Pyotr Vasilyevich Zavadovsky (1739-1812), Minister of Public Education. Born in the Chernigov province in a poor noble family. He served in the offices of the last Ukrainian hetman, Count Kirill Razumovsky, and the governor-general of Little Russia, Petr Rumyantsev. During the Russian-Turkish war in 1768-1774 he distinguished himself in the battles of Larga and Cahul. In 1775 he was appointed cabinet secretary of Catherine II. Becoming a favorite of the Empress, he was promoted to major general. Then he received the rank of privy councilor and became a senator. In 1782 he was appointed head of the Commission on the establishment of schools, then - the manager of the Loan Bank. Paul I granted him the title of count, and then made him the chief director of the Assignation Bank. Alexander I appointed Zavadovsky a member of the Private Committee present in the Senate. From May 1801 to October 1803 he was chairman of the Law Drafting Commission. Alexander Radishchev worked under him after returning from exile. As Minister of Education, on the instructions of the king, he organized numerous secondary and several new higher educational institutions. He was a minister until 1810, after which he was appointed chairman of the department of laws of the State Council.

Count Viktor Pavlovich Kochubey (1768-1834), Minister of Internal Affairs. Born in Moscow. In his youth, his uncle, Catherine's Chancellor Alexander Bezborodko, was involved in his upbringing and education. Studied at Uppsala University. In 1792 he was appointed minister plenipotentiary in Turkey. After 6 years, he became Vice-Chancellor of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, and after the accession of Alexander I to the throne, he became the head of the Collegium. In 1799 he was elevated to the dignity of a count. He was a member of the Private Committee of Alexander I. In 1802 he was appointed Minister of the Interior. In 1807, Alexander I dismissed him: Kochubey opposed the subordination of Russian foreign policy to the interests of France. In 1819, he again began to lead the Ministry of the Interior. In 1823 he was fired. He returned to the service only under Nicholas I. Since 1827, Kochubey was the chairman of the State Council and the Committee of Ministers. In 1831 he was elevated to princely dignity. In 1834, a month and a half before his death, he was appointed State Chancellor of the Interior.

Count Nikolai Petrovich Rumyantsev (1754-1826), Minister of Commerce. Born in St. Petersburg in the family of Field Marshal Pyotr Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky. In 1774 he was sent to Leiden University. After a trip to Europe, he returned to Russia in 1779. In 1781-1795, he served as Minister Plenipotentiary to the Seimas of the Holy Roman Empire. Under Paul I fell into disgrace. He returned to serve under Alexander I. In 1801 he became a member of the State Council, a senator, director of water communications. In 1802 he was appointed Minister of Commerce. Under the leadership of Rumyantsev, a change in trade legislation began, the budget was improved, the waterways of the state were improved, shipping channels were built. After the conclusion of the Peace of Tilsit in 1807, Rumyantsev was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs. Awarded the title of chancellor in 1809 for negotiating the accession of Swedish Finland. In 1810 he headed the State Council. In 1814 he retired. His collections of books and works of art formed the basis of the collections of the Rumyantsev Museum (now the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts) and the Rumyantsev Library (now the Russian State Library).

Count Alexei Ivanovich Vasiliev (1742-1807), Minister of Finance. At the end of the course at the cadet school under the Senate, he served under the prosecutor generals - first A.I. Glebov, then Prince A.A. Vyazemsky. In 1770 he was appointed chief secretary of the Senate. Since 1775, he worked in the commission for the preparation of the Code, where he compiled a collection of laws on financial management, as well as instructions for the newly established state chambers in the provinces. Then Vasiliev was transferred to the state office ( financial management). He was a member of the State Council. With the appointment of the Prosecutor General Alexander Samoilov in 1792, he received the position of director of the medical college. Under Paul I, in 1796 he was appointed state treasurer. Dismissed in 1800. Having ascended the throne, Alexander I was again appointed his state treasurer, and in 1802 - minister of finance. In 1801 he received the title of count. In 1807 he retired.

Count Sergei Kuzmich Vyazmitinov (1744-1819), Minister of War. The son of a landowner of the Rylsk district of the Kursk province. Participant Russian-Turkish wars 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. Since 1770 - Colonel under Field Marshal Rumyantsev. In 1789 he participated in the siege of the fortresses Akkerman and Bendery. In 1790 he was appointed governor of Mogilev. From 1794, he served as Governor-General of Simbirsk and Ufa, as well as commander of the Orenburg Corps. He brought order to the Kirghiz (Kazakh) steppe, led Khan Ishim, a supporter of Russia, to the khan's throne, restored trade with Central Asia. In 1798 he received the rank of general of infantry. Under Paul I, he became the commandant of the Peter and Paul Fortress and the manager of the Commissariat Department, then he was fired. He was again accepted into the service of Alexander I as the manager of the Little Russian provinces. At the beginning of 1802, he became vice-president of the Military Collegium, and a few months later, minister of the military forces. Carried out the reform of the army. Member of the State Council since 1810. From March 1812 - Minister of Police, and from September 1812 - at the same time Chairman of the Committee of Ministers. Since 1816 - the military governor of St. Petersburg, at the same time received the title of count. He wrote the opera The New Family (1781).

Count Nikolai Semenovich Mordvinov (1754-1845), maritime minister. The son of the admiral and seascape writer Semyon Mordvinov. He was brought up together with Tsarevich Pavel Petrovich. In 1768 he was promoted to the rank of midshipman. With the promotion to captain of the II rank, he was appointed commander of the battleship "George the Victorious" (1781), a year later he took over the new 74-gun ship "Tsar Konstantin". Since 1785, he was engaged in the construction of shipyards in Kherson and a port in Sevastopol. During the Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791, he led the siege and assault on the Ochakov fortress. Due to a quarrel with Prince Potemkin-Tauride, he resigned in 1789, but returned to service a year later. Since 1792, with the rank of Vice Admiral, he commanded the Black Sea Fleet. From 1796 - admiral. In September 1802 he was appointed Minister of the Navy, but already in December he resigned and left the fleet forever. Chairman of the Department of State Economy of the State Council (1810-1812). In 1816 he became chairman of the department of economy, from 1821 to 1838 - a member of the department of civil and spiritual affairs of the State Council. In 1834 he was granted the title of count. As a well-known liberal, he was supposed by the Decembrists to be part of the highest governing body of the state. The only member of the Supreme Criminal Court who, in 1826, refused to sign the death warrant for the Decembrists.

A bit of history:

In pre-Petrine Russia, orders served as central governing bodies. Their number reached eighty, and the functions intersected, some of the orders were built according to the branch, some - according to the territorial principle, others were in charge of a narrow, specific range of issues of servicing the royal court. The name itself comes from a one-time assignment, for which many of them were originally created. At the head of the orders were judges from the boyars, many of them were members of the Duma.

Under Ivan the Terrible, in the cities that were the strongholds of the country's defense, the position of city clerks appeared, appointed from the nobility by the sovereign, reporting directly to him and not dependent on the governor and the Boyar Duma. They were in charge primarily of military and administrative affairs: the storage of stocks of weapons, ammunition, food, the construction of city fortifications, bridges and roads, and the collection of militia. Finally, some of the newly annexed lands were administered by special orders (Siberian, Kazan, Astrakhan) from Moscow.

In the 17th century, after the Time of Troubles, it was necessary to strengthen local power, for which purpose governors began to be appointed to cities with districts. The governor obeyed the order in charge of the city, and served from one to three years; under him was an orderly, or moving out, hut - a kind of office. Each voivode received an “instruction” that determined the scope of his activities, and leaving his position, he handed over his affairs and state property according to the inventory - that is, he was not unaccountable to higher authorities. The powers of the governors were extensive, in fact they had full power of all clans in the field: they ensured order and improvement, repaired roads, oversaw the court and the procedure for collecting taxes (they were directly involved in elected judges, elders and kissers), recruited service people.

Peter the Great, striving to bring Russia into the circle of European states, could not help but face the need to reorganize both the apparatus and the order of administration. He created new system bodies of supreme and central government, radically reformed local government, regulated the activities of the entire apparatus, changed personnel policy, unified the procedure for serving, established bodies of control over the activities of officials.

On December 12, 1718, instead of the previous orders, the Collegiums were established by Emperor Peter I - the highest bodies of state administration in Russia that existed before the establishment of ministries by Emperor Alexander I in 1802. The purpose of the colleges was to protect the internal peace and external security of the state, the preservation of good morals and civil order, the encouragement of social and popular activity, the promotion of the economic well-being of the country and the provision of the government with means to set in motion the entire state mechanism.

For this purpose, separate branches of management were distributed among the following 12 colleges: 1) foreign affairs; 2) military; 3) admiralties; 4) spiritual (synod); 5) justice, from which subsequently separated: 6) patrimonial college; 7) manufacturing board; 8) commercial college; 9) erg board; 10) chamber board; 11) headquarters-offices-board; 12) revision board.

The organization, competence and course of the studies of each college were prescribed in the general regulations of February 20, 1720, and in the same year the colleges began their activities in the prescribed manner. Cases decided and not decided up to that time by the Senate were transferred from its office to the offices of the collegiums. The provincial offices and orders were subordinate to the collegiums. The chairman of the collegium could not do anything on his own, and not otherwise than by agreement with his other comrades. The chairmen of the colleges were also senators at the same time.

In Moscow, offices of collegiums were established, in which their representatives (college ranks) changed annually. Over the course of almost a century of existence, the colleges have experienced many changes both in their competencies and in the composition of members. Under Empress Catherine I, the staff of colleges was reduced by half. Further, all boards, with the exception of the foreign, military and admiralties, which remained under the jurisdiction of the Supreme Privy Council and the Sovereign, were subordinated to the senate. In addition to the 12 named collegiums, over time, the following were established: a) the Little Russian collegium; b) medical board; c) Roman Catholic Theological College; d) Justice College of Livonian, Estonian and Finnish Affairs. Catherine II and Paul I significantly changed the subjects of study and the limits of the power of the colleges, and Emperor Alexander I in 1802 finally abolished them and replaced them with ministries. The word "college" began to refer to some government offices, for example, the collegium of foreign affairs.

On September 8 (20) September 1802, in Russia, on the basis of the Manifesto of Alexander I “On the Establishment of Ministries”, instead of the previously existing collegiums, eight ministries were formed: the military, naval forces, foreign affairs, justice, commerce, people’s education, finance and home affairs. Each ministry received an Order, that is, a Regulation that determined its tasks. The largest and most diversified was the Ministry of Internal Affairs.

Structural divisions in the ministries were built according to the functional principle. They were called expeditions, later - departments.

In order to unite the activities of the ministries, all the ministers had to, gathering at general meetings, form a “Committee of Ministers”, at whose meetings Emperor Alexander I was often present. Instead of the previous collegiate principle, sole power and responsibility were placed at the basis of the new system: the minister alone managed his department with the help of the office and subordinate institutions, he alone and had to be responsible for all the omissions in the ministry. To discuss the most important state affairs and laws, Alexander arranged an “Indispensable Council”, consisting of twelve members, instead of random and temporary meetings under Empress Catherine II and Emperor Paul I.

In 1811, the internal organization, operation and rights of the ministries were defined by the "General Establishment of the Ministries". The ministries were headed by ministers who had one or more comrades (deputies). The ministers were ex officio members of the Committee of Ministers and the Council of State and had to be present in the Senate.

The main structural subdivisions of ministries were departments (in some ministries - main departments), general office work was carried out in the offices of ministers.

The order of office work, established in 1811, was basically preserved until 1917.

The most significant changes in the composition of the ministries took place in the first half of the 19th century and were associated with the formation of the united Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education (1817-1824), the creation of the Ministry of the Imperial Court and Destinies (1826) and the Ministry of State Property (1837). In 1865-1868 and 1880-1881 there was a Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs. There were frequent reorganizations of departments and their transfer from one ministry to another.

In October 1905, under the influence of the revolution, the responsibility of the ministers to the State Duma was declared (in fact, the ministers remained completely subordinate to the emperor). The Committee of Ministers was replaced by the Council of Ministers. At the same time, the Ministry of Trade and Industry was formed.

After the February Revolution of 1917, the system of ministries was preserved. On March 1, 1917, commissars from among the members of the State Duma were appointed to the ministries, and on March 3, ministers of the Provisional Government. In May and August 1917, the Provisional Government formed five new ministries: labor, post and telegraph, food, state charity, and confessions.

After establishing Soviet power in October 1917, on the basis of the ministries, people's commissariats were created - people's commissariats, which in 1946 were again called ministries.

After a series of transformations, the ministries remain in the Russian Federation. Currently, the activities of the Government of Russia are regulated by the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the Federal Constitutional Law "On the Government of the Russian Federation". There are 16 ministries in the structure of the Government.

Prepared by the press service of the magazine "Keeper". Materials used: Mayak Radio Company http://www.radiomayak.ru/, Saratov State University http://www.sgu.ru/ "Russian History", portal "Russia congratulates" http://www.prazdniki.ru/, RIA Novosti project "State symbols"

This war began at the initiative of Iran. His army numbered 140,000 cavalry and 60,000 infantry, but it was poorly armed and equipped. The Russian Caucasian army was initially led by General I.V. Gudovich. In a short time, his troops managed to conquer the Ganja, Sheki, Karabakh, Shirvan, Quba and Baku khanates. However, after the unsuccessful assault on the city of Erivan (Yerevan) in 1808, General A.P. Tormasov was appointed commander. He won several more victories.

In 1810. Persians and Turks made an alliance against Russia, which, however, did not help them much. In 1812. Russian troops of General P. S. Kotlyarevsky, consisting of 2 thousand people, attacked the 10 thousandth Persian army led by Crown Prince Abbas Mirza and put it to flight, after which they occupied Arkevan and Lankaran. October 24, 1813. was signed Gulistan peace treaty. The Shah of Iran recognized the territories of Georgia, Dagestan, Shirvan, Mingrelia, Imeretia, Abkhazia and Guria for Russia. He was forced to conclude a military alliance with Russia and grant her the right to free navigation in the Caspian. The result of the war was a serious expansion and strengthening of the southern borders of Russia.

Rupture of the Russian-French alliance.

Alexander unsuccessfully demanded that Napoleon refuse to support the intentions of the Poles to annex the lands of Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine to the Duchy of Warsaw. Finally in February 1811 Napoleon dealt another blow to his " dear ally"- annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg in Germany to France, the crown prince of which was married to Alexander's sister Catherine. In April 1811, the Franco-Russian alliance was broken. Both countries began intensive preparations for an inevitable war.

Patriotic War of 1812 (briefly)

The cause of the war was the violation by Russia and France of the terms of the Tilsit Treaty. Russia actually abandoned the blockade of England, accepting ships with English goods under neutral flags in its ports. France annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg, and Napoleon considered Alexander's demand for the withdrawal of French troops from Prussia and the Duchy of Warsaw insulting. A military clash between the two great powers was becoming inevitable.

June 12, 1812. Napoleon at the head of a 600,000-strong army, crossing the river. Neman, invaded Russia. With an army of about 240 thousand people, the Russian troops were forced to retreat before the French armada. On August 3, the 1st and 2nd Russian armies joined forces near Smolensk, and a battle was fought. Napoleon failed to win a complete victory. In August, M.I. was appointed commander-in-chief. Kutuzov. Kutuzov decided to give battle near the village of Borodino. A good position was chosen for the troops. The right flank was defended by the Koloch River, the left was defended by earthen fortifications - flushes, they were defended by the troops of P.I.Bagration. In the center stood the troops of General N.N. Raevsky and artillery. Their positions were closed by Shevardinsky redoubt.

Napoleon intended to break through the Russian formation from the left flank, and then direct all efforts to the center and press Kutuzov's army to the river. He directed the fire of 400 guns at Bagration's flashes. The French launched 8 attacks, which began at 5 o'clock in the morning, suffering huge losses in them. Only by 4 o'clock in the afternoon did the French manage to advance in the center, temporarily capturing Raevsky's batteries. In the midst of the battle, a desperate raid behind French lines was made by the lancers of the 1st Cavalry Corps F.P. Uvarova and the Cossacks of Ataman M.I. Platov. This held back the attacking impulse of the French.

The battle ended late in the evening. The troops suffered huge losses: the French - 58 thousand people, the Russians - 44 thousand.

September 1, 1812. At a meeting in Fili, Kutuzov decides to leave Moscow. The retreat was necessary for the preservation of the army and the further struggle for the independence of the Fatherland.

Napoleon entered Moscow on September 2 and stayed there until October 7, 1812, awaiting peace proposals. During this time, most of the city was destroyed by fires. Bonaparte's attempts to make peace with Alexander I were unsuccessful.

Leaving Moscow in October, Napoleon tried to go to Kaluga and spend the winter in a province not devastated by the war. On October 12, near Maloyaroslavets, Napoleon's army was defeated and began to retreat along the devastated Smolensk road, driven by frost and hunger. Pursuing the retreating French, the Russian troops destroyed their formations in parts. The final defeat of Napoleon's army took place in the battle near the river. Berezina November 14-16. Only 30 thousand French soldiers were able to leave Russia. On December 25, Alexander I issued a manifesto on the victorious end of Patriotic War.

Nicholas I

Emperor Nicholas 1 was born on June 25 (July 6), 1796. He was the third son of Paul 1 and Maria Feodorovna. Received a good education, but did not recognize humanities. He was versed in the art of war and fortification. He was good at engineering. However, despite this, the king was not loved in the army. Cruel corporal punishment and coldness led to the fact that the nickname of Nicholas 1, Nikolai Palkin, was fixed among the soldiers.

Alexandra Fedorovna- the wife of Nicholas 1, who has amazing beauty, - became the mother of the future Emperor Alexander 2.

Nicholas 1 ascended the throne after the death of his elder brother Alexander 1. Constantine, the second pretender to the throne, renounced his rights during the life of his elder brother. Nicholas 1 did not know about this and at first swore allegiance to Constantine. This short period would later be called the Interregnum. Although the manifesto on the accession to the throne of Nicholas 1 was issued on December 13 (25), 1825, legally the reign of Nicholas 1 began on November 19 (December 1). And the very first day was overshadowed by the uprising of the Decembrists on Senate Square, which was suppressed, and the leaders were executed in 1826. But Tsar Nicholas 1 saw the need to reform social order. He decided to give the country clear laws, while relying on bureaucracy, since trust in the nobility was undermined.

The domestic policy of Nicholas 1 was characterized by extreme conservatism. The slightest manifestations of free thought were suppressed. He defended autocracy with all his might. The secret office under the leadership of Benckendorff was engaged in political investigation.

The reforms of Nicholas 1 were limited. Legislation has been streamlined. Under the leadership of Speransky, the issue of the Complete Collection of Laws began Russian Empire. Kiselev carried out a reform of the management of state peasants. Peasants were allotted land when they moved to uninhabited areas, first-aid posts were built in the villages, and innovations in agricultural technology were introduced. In 1839 - 1843. a financial reform was also carried out, which established the ratio between the silver ruble and banknotes. But the question of serfdom remained unresolved.

The foreign policy of Nicholas 1 pursued the same goals as the domestic policy. During the reign of Nicholas 1, Russia fought the revolution not only within the country, but also outside it.

Nicholas 1 died on March 2 (February 18), 1855 in St. Petersburg, and his son, Alexander 2, ascended the throne.

Brief biography of Alexander 2

The domestic policy of Alexander 2 was strikingly different from the policy of Nicholas 1 and was marked by many reforms. The most important of them was the peasant reform of Alexander 2, according to which in 1861, on February 19, serfdom was abolished. This reform caused an urgent need for further changes in many Russian institutions and led Alexander II to carry out bourgeois reforms.

In 1864. Zemstvo reform was carried out by decree of Alexander II. Its goal was to create a system of local self-government, for which the institute of the county zemstvo was established.

In 1870. the city reform was carried out, which had a positive effect on the development of industry and cities. City dumas and councils were established, which were representative bodies of power.

The judicial reform of Alexander 2, carried out in 1864, was marked by the introduction of European legal norms, but, some features of the previously existing judicial system were preserved, for example, a special court for officials.

The military reform of Alexander 2. Its result is universal military service, as well as army organization close to European standards.

In the course of the financial reform of Alexander II, the State Bank was created, and official accounting was born.

The foreign policy of Alexander 2 was very successful. During his reign, Russia regained its military power, which had been shaken under Nicholas 1.

The great reforms of Alexander II were interrupted by his death. March 1, 1881 On that day, Tsar Alexander 2 intended to sign a project of large-scale economic and administrative reforms Loris-Melikova. The assassination attempt on Alexander 2, committed by the People's Will Grinevitsky, led to his severe injury and the death of the emperor.

Alexander 3 - the policy of counter-reforms (briefly)

April 29, 1881 - Manifesto, in which the emperor declared his will to preserve the foundations of autocracy and thereby eliminated the hopes of the democrats to transform the regime into a constitutional monarchy.

Alexander III replaced liberal figures in the government with hardliners. The concept of counter-reforms was developed by its main ideologist KN Pobedonostsev.

To strengthen the autocratic system, the system of zemstvo self-government was subjected to changes. In the hands of the zemstvo chiefs, the judicial and administrative powers were combined. They had unlimited power over the peasants.

Published in 1890 The "Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions" strengthened the role of the nobility in Zemstvo institutions and the administration's control over them. The representation of landowners in zemstvos increased significantly by introducing a high property qualification.

In 1881. issued the “Regulations on Measures to Preserve State Security and Public Peace”, which granted numerous repressive rights to the local administration (declare a state of emergency, expel without trial, bring a military court, close educational establishments). This law was used until the reforms of 1917 and became a tool for fighting the revolutionary and liberal movement.

In 1892. A new “City regulation” was issued, which infringed on the independence of city governments. The government included them in common system public institutions thus putting it under control.

Alexander 3 by law of 1893 forbade the sale and pledge of peasant lands, nullifying all the successes of previous years.

In 1884. Alexander undertook a university counter-reform, the purpose of which was to educate an intelligentsia obedient to the authorities. The new university charter severely limited the autonomy of universities, placing them under the control of trustees.

Under Alexander 3, the development of factory legislation began, which restrained the initiative of the owners of the enterprise and excluded the possibility of workers fighting for their rights.

The results of the counter-reforms of Alexander 3 are contradictory: the country managed to achieve an industrial boom, refrain from participating in wars, but at the same time social unrest and tension intensified.

Emperor Nicholas 2 (Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov)

Nicholas 2 (May 18, 1868 - July 17, 1918) - last Russian emperor , son of Alexander III.

May 26, 1896. The coronation of Nicholas II and his wife took place. On holidays, a terrible event takes place, called "Khodynki", as a result of which 1282 people died in a stampede.

During the reign of Nicholas 2, Russia experienced a rapid economic recovery. The agricultural sector is strengthening - the country becomes the main exporter of agricultural products in Europe, a stable gold currency is introduced. The industry was actively developing: cities grew, enterprises and railways were built. Nicholas 2 was a reformer, he introduced a standardized day for workers, provided them with insurance, and carried out reforms in the army and navy. The emperor supported the development of culture and science in Russia.

But, despite significant improvements in the country, there were popular unrest. In January 1905, the first Russian revolution took place, the impetus for which was Bloody Sunday. As a result, on October 17, 1905, a manifesto "On the improvement of the state order" was adopted. It talked about civil liberties. A parliament was created, which included the State Duma and the State Council. On June 3 (16), 1907, the “Third of June coup” took place, which changed the rules for elections to the Duma.

In 1914, the First World War began, as a result of which the situation inside the country worsened. Failures in battles undermined the authority of Tsar Nicholas 2. In February 1917, an uprising broke out in Petrograd, which reached grandiose proportions. On March 2, 1917, fearing mass bloodshed, Nicholas 2 signed the act of abdication.

On March 9, 1917, the provisional government arrested the entire Romanov family and sent them to Tsarskoye Selo. In August they are transported to Tobolsk, and in April 1918 to their last destination - Yekaterinburg. On the night of July 16-17, the Romanovs were taken to the basement, the death sentence was read out and the execution was carried out. After a thorough investigation, it was determined that none of the royal family failed to escape.

Russia in World War I

The First World War was a consequence of the contradictions that arose between the states of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary) and the Entente (Russia, England, France). At the heart of these contradictions was the conflict between England and Germany, including economic, naval and colonial claims. There were disputes between France and Germany over the regions of Alsace and Lorraine taken from France, as well as Germany's claims to French colonies in Africa.

The reason for the start of the war was the murder in Sarajevo on June 25, 1914 of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. August 19, 1914 Germany declared war on Russia.

Military operations in Europe were divided into two fronts: Western (in France and Belgium) and Eastern - Russian. Russian troops operated on the North-Western Front (East Prussia, the Baltic states, Poland) and the South-Western (Western Ukraine, Transcarpathia). Russia entered the war without having had time to complete the rearmament of its troops.

Successful operations were carried out against German troops near Warsaw and Lodz.

Autumn 1914. Turkey took the side of the Triple Alliance. The opening of the Caucasian front greatly complicated the position of Russia. The troops began to experience an acute need for ammunition, the situation was complicated by the helplessness of the allies.

In 1915. Germany, having concentrated the main forces on the Eastern Front, carried out a spring-summer offensive, as a result of which Russia lost all the gains of 1914 and partly the territories of Poland, the Baltic States, Ukraine and Western Belarus.

Germany transferred its main forces to the Western Front, where it began active fighting near the fortress of Verdun.

Two offensive attempts - in Galicia and Belarus ended in defeat. The Germans managed to capture the city of Riga and the Moonsund archipelago.

October 26, 1917. The 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted the Decree on Peace, in which all the belligerents were asked to start peace negotiations. On November 14, Germany agreed to conduct negotiations, which began on November 20, 1917 in Brest-Litovsk.

A truce was concluded, Germany put forward demands, which the delegation headed by L. Trotsky rejected and left Brest-Litovsk. To this, the German troops responded with an offensive along the entire front. On February 18, the new Soviet delegation signed a peace treaty with Germany on even more difficult terms.

Russia lost Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, part of Belarus. The military presence of Soviet troops in the Baltic states, Finland, and Ukraine was excluded.

Russia undertook to demobilize the army, transfer the ships of the Black Sea Fleet to Germany, and pay a monetary contribution.

February Revolution of 1917 (briefly)

The difficult economic situation pushed the government to involve the bourgeoisie in managing the economy. Numerous committees and bourgeois unions appeared, the purpose of which was to provide assistance to the victims of the war. Military-industrial committees dealt with issues of defense, fuel, transport, food, etc.

At the beginning of 1917. the level of the strike movement has reached a critical point. In January-February 1917, 676,000 workers went on strike, presenting mainly (95% of the strikes) political demands. The growth of the workers' and peasants' movement showed the "unwillingness of the lower classes to live in the old way."

February 14, 1917 A demonstration took place near the Tauride Palace demanding that the deputies of the State Duma create a "government of people's salvation". At the same time, the Bolsheviks, calling on the workers to a one-day general strike, led 90,000 people out onto the streets of Petrograd. The revolutionary explosion was facilitated by the introduction of bread cards, which caused its rise in price and panic among the population. On February 22, Nicholas II left for Mogilev, where his Headquarters was located. On February 23, the Vyborg and Petrograd sides went on strike, pogroms of bakeries and bakeries began in the city.

The success of the revolution began to depend on which side the Petrograd garrison would take. On the morning of February 26, soldiers of the Volynsky, Preobrazhensky and Lithuanian regiments joined the rebels, they captured the armory and arsenal.

Political prisoners held in the Kresty prison were released. By the end of the day, most of the units of the Petrograd garrison went over to the side of the rebels.

The corps under the command of N.I. Ivanov, sent to suppress the demonstrators, was disarmed on the outskirts of the city. Without waiting for support and realizing the futility of resistance, on February 28, all the other troops, led by the commander of the military district, General S.S. Khabalov, surrendered.

The rebels have established control over the most important objects in the city.

On the morning of February 27, members of the "working group" at the Central Military Industrial Committee announced the creation of a "Provisional Executive Committee of Soviets of Workers' Deputies" and called for the election of representatives to the Soviet.

Nicholas II from Headquarters tried to break through to Tsarskoye Selo. In a situation of a developing revolutionary crisis, the emperor was forced to sign a manifesto on abdication for himself and his young son Alexei in favor of his brother, Mikhail Alekseevich Romanov. However, Michael refused the throne, stating that the issue of power should be decided by the Constituent Assembly.

October Revolution of 1917 in Russia

The Great October Socialist Revolution took place on October 25-26, 1917. This is one of the greatest events in the history of Russia, as a result of which there were cardinal changes in the position of all classes of society.

The October Revolution began as a result of a number of good reasons:

• In 1914-1918. Russia was involved in the first world war, the situation at the front was not the best, there was no sensible leader, the army suffered heavy losses. In industry, the growth of military products prevailed over consumer products, which led to an increase in prices and caused discontent among the masses. The soldiers and peasants wanted peace, and the bourgeoisie, who profited from the supply of military equipment, longed for the continuation of hostilities.
• national conflicts.
• The intensity of the class struggle. The peasants, who for centuries dreamed of getting rid of the oppression of the landowners and kulaks and taking possession of the land, were ready for decisive action.
• The fall of the authority of the Provisional Government, which was unable to solve the problems of society.
• The Bolsheviks had a strong authoritative leader V.I. Lenin, who promised the people to solve all social problems.
• The prevalence of socialist ideas in society.

The Bolshevik Party achieved tremendous influence over the masses. In October, there were already 400,000 people on their side. On October 16, 1917, the Military Revolutionary Committee was created, which began preparations for an armed uprising. During the revolution, by October 25, 1917, all the key points in the city were occupied by the Bolsheviks, led by V.I. Lenin. They're taking over the Winter palace and arrest the provisional government.

On October 26, the Decree on Peace and Land was adopted. At the congress, a Soviet government was formed, called the "Council of People's Commissars", which included: Lenin himself (chairman), L.D. Trotsky (People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs), I.V. Stalin (People's Commissar for National Affairs). The “Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia” was introduced, which stated that all people have equal rights to freedom and development, there is no longer a nation of masters and a nation of oppressed.

As a result of the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks won, and the dictatorship of the proletariat was established. Class society was liquidated, the landlords' land was transferred into the hands of the peasants, and industrial facilities: factories, plants, mines - into the hands of the workers.

Civil War and intervention (briefly)

The civil war began in October 1917 and ended with the defeat of the White Army in the Far East in the autumn of 1922. During this time, various social classes and groups in Russia used armed methods to resolve the contradictions that arose between them.

To the main reasons for starting civil war can be attributed:

The discrepancy between the goals of the transformation of society and the methods for achieving them,

Refusal to create a coalition government,

dispersal of the Constituent Assembly,

Nationalization of land and industry,

Elimination of commodity-money relations,

The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat,

Creation of a one-party system,

The danger of the revolution spreading to other countries,

Economic losses of the Western powers during regime change in Russia.

Spring 1918. English, American and French troops landed in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk. within the limits Far East the Japanese invaded, the British and Americans landed in Vladivostok - the intervention began.

May 25 there was an uprising of the 45,000th Czechoslovak corps, which was transferred to Vladivostok for further shipment to France. A well-armed and well-equipped corps stretched from the Volga to the Urals. In the conditions of the decayed Russian army, he became the only real force at that time.

November-December 1918 English troops landed in Batumi and Novorossiysk, the French occupied Odessa. In these critical conditions, the Bolsheviks managed to create a combat-ready army by mobilizing people and resources and attracting military specialists from the tsarist army.

By the autumn of 1918. The Red Army liberated the cities of Samara, Simbirsk, Kazan and Tsaritsyn.

The revolution in Germany had a significant impact on the course of the civil war. Recognizing its defeat in the First World War, Germany agreed to annul the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and withdrew its troops from the territory of Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states.

The Entente began to withdraw its troops, providing only material assistance to the Whites.

By April 1919. The Red Army managed to stop the troops of General A.V. Kolchak. Driven into the depths of Siberia, they were defeated by the beginning of 1920.

Summer 1919. General Denikin, having captured Ukraine, moved to Moscow and approached Tula. The troops of the first cavalry army under the command of M.V. Frunze and the Latvian riflemen concentrated on the Southern Front. In the spring of 1920, near Novorossiysk, the "Reds" defeated the Whites.

In the north of the country against the Soviets led fighting troops of General N.N. Yudenich. In the spring and autumn of 1919 they made two unsuccessful attempts to capture Petrograd.

In April 1920. the conflict between Soviet Russia and Poland began. In May 1920, the Poles captured Kyiv. The troops of the Western and Southwestern fronts launched an offensive, but failed to achieve a final victory.

Realizing the impossibility of continuing the war, in March 1921 the parties signed a peace treaty.

The war ended with the defeat of General P.N. Wrangel, who led the remnants of Denikin's troops in the Crimea. In 1920, the Far Eastern Republic was formed, by 1922 it was finally liberated from the Japanese.

Formation of the USSR (briefly)

In 1918, the "Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People" was adopted, proclaiming the principle of the future structure of the country. Its federal basis, as a free union of republics, assumed the right of nations to self-determination. Following this, the Soviet government recognized the independence of Finland and the statehood of Poland.

The collapse of the Russian Empire and the imperialist war led to the establishment of Soviet power throughout Russia.

Proclaimed in 1918. The RSFSR occupied 92% of the entire territory and was the largest of all Soviet republics, where more than 100 peoples and nationalities lived. It partly included the territories of Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. In fact, until 1922, the Far Eastern Republic functioned in its likeness.

From 1920 to 1921. units of the Red Army occupied these states without visible resistance and established the laws of the RSFSR there. The Sovietization of Belarus passed easily.

In Ukraine, it was not without a struggle with the pro-Kiev course. The process of establishing Soviet power in the Central Asian Soviet People's Republics - Bukhara and Khorezm - was going on heavily. Detachments of the local armed opposition continued to resist there.

Most of the communist leaders of the republics were worried about the existence of "Great Russian chauvinism", so that the unification of the republics into a single whole would not become the creation of a new empire. This problem was perceived especially painfully in Georgia and Ukraine.

The unity and rigidity of the repressive bodies served as powerful factors in the unification of the republics.

Developing the principles of national state structure engaged in the commission of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Autonomous, federal and confederal options for building a single state were considered.

The plan for the declared autonomous entry of the Soviet republics into the RSFSR was proposed by the People's Commissar for Nationalities, Stalin. However, the commission accepted Lenin's proposal for a union federal state. He gave future republics formal sovereignty.

Lenin clearly understood that a single party and a single repressive system were a sure guarantee of the integrity of the state. Lenin's project could attract other peoples to the union, and not scare them away, as Stalin's version.

December 30, 1922. At the First Congress of Soviets, the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was proclaimed. The Congress adopted the Declaration and the Treaty.

The Central Executive Committee (CEC) was elected as the supreme legislative body, which consisted of two chambers: the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities.

January 31, 1924. The II All-Union Congress of Soviets adopted the first Constitution of the USSR, which stipulated the principles of the Declaration and the Treaty.

The foreign policy of the USSR was quite active. Progress has been made in relations with the countries of the capitalist camp. An agreement on economic cooperation was signed with France (1966). The Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Nuclear Arms (SALT-1) is concluded. The 1975 Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) played an important role in relieving international tension. The USSR maintained and strengthened ties with developing countries.

The 1980s were a time of radical change and restructuring in the USSR. It led to problems in the social sphere and social production, the impending crisis in the economy of the USSR, caused by a devastating arms race for the country. The course towards the democratization of public life and publicity was announced by M.S. Gorbachev.

But perestroika could not prevent the collapse of the USSR.

Among the main reasons for the collapse of the USSR are the following:

• The actual destruction of the philosophy of communism, the spirit of which was lost first by the ruling elite of the country, and then by all its citizens.
• The imbalance in the development of industry in the USSR - as in the pre-war years, the main attention was paid to heavy industry, as well as defense and energy. Development light industry and the level of production of consumer goods were clearly insufficient.
• The ideological failure also played its role. Life behind the Iron Curtain seemed beautiful and free to most Soviet people. And such benefits as free education and medicine, housing and social guarantees were taken for granted, people did not know how to appreciate them.
• Prices in the USSR, relatively low, were artificially "frozen", but there was a problem of shortage of many goods, often also artificial.
• The Soviet man was completely controlled by the system.
• Many experts say that one of the reasons for the fall of the USSR was a sharp drop in oil prices and the prohibition of religions.

The Baltic republics (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia) were the first to secede from the USSR.

After the collapse of the USSR, Russia declared itself the heir to a great empire. The 1990s turned into a severe crisis for the country in all spheres. The production crisis led to the actual destruction of many industries, the contradictions between the legislative and executive authorities - to crisis situation in the political sphere.

THE GREAT PATRIOTIC WAR

At dawn on June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany attacked Soviet Union. On the German side were Romania, Hungary, Italy and Finland. In accordance with the Barbarossa plan developed in 1940, Germany planned to enter the Arkhangelsk-Volga-Astrakhan line as soon as possible. It was a setting for a blitzkrieg - a lightning war. Thus began the Great Patriotic War.

The main periods of the Great Patriotic War. The first period (June 22, 1941 - November 18, 1942) from the beginning of the war to the start of the offensive Soviet troops near Stalingrad. It was the most difficult period for the USSR, called the Battle of Stalingrad.

Having created multiple superiority in people and military equipment in the main directions of the offensive, the German army has achieved significant success. By the end of November 1941, the Soviet troops, having retreated under the blows of superior enemy forces to Leningrad, Moscow, Rostov-on-Don, left the enemy a vast territory, lost about 5 million people killed, missing and captured, most of the tanks and aircraft .

The second period (November 19, 1942 - the end of 1943) - a radical turning point in the war. Having exhausted and bled the enemy in defensive battles, on November 19, 1942, Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive, surrounding 22 fascist divisions near Stalingrad, numbering more than 300 thousand people. On February 2, 1943, this grouping was liquidated. At the same time, enemy troops were expelled from North Caucasus. By the summer of 1943, the Soviet-German front had stabilized.

The third period (the end of 1943 - May 8, 1945) is the final period of the Great Patriotic War. In 1944, the Soviet economy reached its highest expansion ever. war time. Industry, transport, and agriculture developed successfully. War production grew especially rapidly.

1944 was marked by the victories of the Soviet Armed Forces. The entire territory of the USSR was completely liberated from the fascist invaders. The Soviet Union came to the aid of the peoples of Europe - Soviet army liberated Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, fought its way to Norway. Romania and Bulgaria declared war on Germany. Finland left the war.

During the winter offensive of 1945, the Soviet Army pushed the enemy back more than 500 km. Poland, Hungary and Austria, the eastern part of Czechoslovakia were almost completely liberated. The Soviet Army reached the Oder. On April 25, 1945, a historic meeting of Soviet troops with American and British troops took place on the Elbe, in the Torgau region.

The fighting in Berlin was exceptionally fierce and stubborn. On April 30, the banner of Victory was hoisted over the Reichstag. On May 8, the act of unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany was signed. May 9 - became Victory Day.

Development of the USSR in 1945-1953

The main task of the post-war period was the restoration of the destroyed economy. In March 1946, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a plan for the reconstruction and restoration of the national economy.

The demilitarization of the economy and the modernization of the military-industrial complex began. Heavy industry was declared a priority area, mainly engineering, metallurgy, and the fuel and energy complex.

By 1948, production reached pre-war levels thanks to the heroic labor of the Soviet people, the free labor of Gulag prisoners, the redistribution of funds in favor of heavy industry, the transfer of funds from the agricultural sector and light industry, the attraction of funds from German reparations, and strict economic planning.

In 1945, gross output Agriculture The USSR was 60% of the pre-war level. The government tried to bring the industry out of the crisis by punitive measures.

In 1947, a mandatory minimum of workdays was established, the law “For encroachment on collective farm and state property” was tightened, the tax on livestock maintenance was increased, which led to its mass slaughter.

The areas of individual allotments of collective farmers have been reduced. Reduced wages in kind. Collective farmers were denied passports, which limited their freedom. At the same time, farms were enlarged and control over them was tightened.

These reforms were not successful, and only by the 1950s did they manage to reach the pre-war level of agricultural production.

In 1945 the State Defense Committee was abolished. The work of public and political organizations has been resumed

In 1946, the Council of People's Commissars was transformed into the Council of Ministers, and the people's commissariats into ministries.

Since 1946, the drafting of a new Constitution of the USSR began. In 1947, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks submitted the question “On the draft of a new program of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks” for consideration.

There have been changes in science and culture. Compulsory seven-year education was introduced in 1952, evening schools were opened. The Academy of Arts and the Academy of Sciences with its branches in the republics were formed. Postgraduate courses are open in many universities. Television began to broadcast regularly.

In 1948, the persecution of "cosmopolitans" began. Bans were imposed on contacts and marriages with foreigners. A wave of anti-Semitism swept across the country.

Khrushchev's foreign and domestic policy

Khrushchev's activities played a significant role in organizing mass repressions, both in Moscow and in Ukraine. During the Great Patriotic War, Khrushchev was a member of the military councils of the fronts, and by 1943 he had received the rank of lieutenant general. Also, Khrushchev led the partisan movement behind the front line.

One of the most famous post-war initiatives was the strengthening of the collective farms, which contributed to the reduction of bureaucracy. In the autumn of 1953, Khrushchev took the highest party post. The reign of Khrushchev began with the announcement of a large-scale project for the development of virgin lands. The purpose of the development of virgin lands was to increase the volume of grain harvested in the country.

Khrushchev's domestic policy was marked by the rehabilitation of the victims of political repression and by the improvement in the standard of living of the population of the USSR. Also, he made an attempt to modernize the party system.

Foreign policy changed under Khrushchev. Thus, among the theses put forward by him at the 20th Congress of the CPSU, there was also the thesis that the war between socialism and capitalism is by no means inevitable. Khrushchev's speech at the 20th Congress contained rather harsh criticism of Stalin's activities, the personality cult, and political repressions. It was perceived ambiguously by the leaders of other countries. Soon published in the USA English translation this speech. But the citizens of the USSR were able to get acquainted with it only in the 2nd half of the 80s.

In 1957 a conspiracy was created against Khrushchev, which was not crowned with success. As a result, the conspirators, which included Molotov, Kaganovich and Malenkov, were dismissed by the decision of the Plenum of the Central Committee.

Brief biography of Brezhnev

During the Great Patriotic War, Brezhnev L.I. served as head of the Southern Front, and received the rank of major general in 1943. At the end of hostilities, Brezhnev successfully builds a political career. He consistently works as secretary of the regional committee of Ukraine and Moldova. Since 1952, he became a member of the Presidium of the Central Committee, and after Khrushchev came to power, he was appointed secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan.

By 1957, Brezhnev returned to the Presidium and after 3 years held the position of Chairman of the Presidium. During the Brezhnev years, the country refuses to implement the ideas of the previous leader, Khrushchev. Since 1965, Brezhnev's unhurried and outwardly more modest reforms began, the goal of which was to build "developed socialism." Enterprises are gaining greater independence than in previous years, and the standard of living of the population is gradually improving, which is especially noticeable in the villages. However, already by the beginning of the 1970s, stagnation appeared in the economy.

AT international relations Khrushchev's course is maintained, and dialogue with the West continues. The agreements on disarmament in Europe, enshrined in the Helsinki Accords, are also important. Tension in international relations reappears only after the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan.

Brief biography of Gorbachev Mikhail Sergeevich

Party career Gorbachev M.S. turned out to be successful. And high yields in the Stavropol region have created a good reputation for him. In an effort to introduce more rational methods of agricultural labor, Gorbachev publishes articles in the regional and central press. As secretary of the Central Committee, he deals with the problems of the country's agriculture.

Gorbachev came to power in 1985. Later, he held other high posts in the USSR. Gorbachev's rule was marked by serious political reforms designed to put an end to stagnation. The most famous were such actions of the country's leadership as the introduction of cost accounting, acceleration, money exchange. The famous dry law of Gorbachev caused a sharp rejection of almost all citizens of the Union. Unfortunately, the decree "On strengthening the fight against drunkenness" had an absolutely opposite effect. Most of the liquor stores were closed. However, the practice of home brewing has spread almost everywhere. There was also fake vodka. Prohibition was repealed in 1987 for economic reasons. However, fake vodka remained.

Gorbachev's perestroika was marked by a weakening of censorship and, at the same time, a deterioration in the standard of living of Soviet citizens. This happened due to ill-conceived domestic policy. The interethnic conflicts in Georgia, Baku, Nagorno-Karabakh, etc. also contributed to the growth of tension in society. The Baltic republics already during this period headed for secession from the Union.

Gorbachev's foreign policy, the so-called "policy of new thinking", contributed to the detente of the difficult international situation and the end of the Cold War.

In 1989, Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev took the post of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, and in 1990 he became the first and only president of the USSR.

In 1990, M. Gorbachev received Nobel Prize of the world as a person who has done a lot to ease international tension. But the country at that time was already in a deep crisis.

As a result of the August putsch of 1991, organized by the former supporters of Gorbachev, the USSR ceased to exist. Gorbachev resigned after the signing of the Belovezhskaya Accords. Subsequently, he continued social activities, headed the organizations "Green Cross" and "Gorbachev Foundation".

RUSSIA DURING B.N. YELTSIN

June 12, 1991 B.N. Yeltsin elected president Russian Federation. After his election, the main slogans of B. Yeltsin were the fight against the privileges of the nomenklatura and the independence of Russia from the USSR.

On July 10, 1991, Boris Yeltsin took an oath of allegiance to the people of Russia and the Russian Constitution, and took office as president of the RSFSR.

In August 1991, the confrontation between Yeltsin and the putschists began, which led to a proposal to ban the activities of the Communist Party, and on August 19, Boris Yeltsin delivered a famous speech from a tank, in which he read out a decree on the illegitimate activities of the GKChP. The coup is defeated, the activities of the CPSU are completely banned.

In December 1991, the USSR officially ceased to exist.

December 25, 1991 B.N. Yeltsin received full presidential power in Russia in connection with the resignation of the President of the USSR Mikhail Gorbachev and the actual collapse of the USSR.

1992 - 1993 - a new stage in the construction of the Russian state - privatization has begun, economic reform is being carried out.

In September-October 1993, a confrontation between Boris Yeltsin and the Supreme Soviet began, which led to the dissolution of parliament. Unrest in Moscow, which peaked on October 3-4, supporters of the Supreme Soviet seized the television center, the situation was brought under control only with the help of tanks.

In 1994, the First Chechen War began, which led to a huge number of casualties among both the civilian population and the military, as well as law enforcement officers.

May 1996 Boris Yeltsin forced to sign an order in Khasavyurt on the withdrawal of troops from Chechnya, which theoretically means the end of the first Chechen war.

In 1998 and 1999 in Russia, as a result of unsuccessful economic policy, a default occurs, then a government crisis.

December 31, 1999 at New Year's address Boris Yeltsin announced his early resignation to the people of Russia. Prime Minister V.V. Putin, who provides Yeltsin and his family with guarantees of complete security.

Preview:

Alexander I

First period of government.

1. Which of the following events, phenomena were associated with the concept of "Arakcheevshchina"? (3 answers)

1.replacement of collegiums by ministries

2. establishment of military settlements.

3.issuance of a decree on "free cultivators"

4.Opening of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum

5. Increased censorship

6. tougher discipline in the army.

2. In what year were ministries established in Russia instead of colleges?

one). 1762 2). 1802 3). 1848 4). 1894

3. The foundation of military settlements in Russia by A.A. Arakcheev took place in:

one). 1780s 2).1810s 3). 1860s 4) 1900s

4. Which of the listed persons developed projects for public administration reforms during the reign of Alexander I?

1.M.M.Speransky 2.S.Yu.Witte 3.P.A.Stolypin 4.A.D.Menshikov

5. The establishment of ministries, the State Council, military settlements - all these events were carried out during the reign:

1. Paul I 2. Alexander I 3. Alexander III 4. P.S. Nakhimov

6. What was the name of the central bodies of state administration established in Russia in 1802 instead of collegiums, which were in charge of branches of the economy or administration?

1. ministries 2. orders

3. secret committees 4. departments of the imperial office

7. As in the XVIII-XIX centuries. were personally dependent peasants who worked out corvée on the land of the landowner or paid the landowner dues?

1. serfs 2. laborers 3. purchases 4. temporarily liable

8. The last palace coup in Russia was committed in:

1).1796 2) 1801 3) 1825 4).1855

9. The decree on "Free (free) ploughmen" was adopted in:

one). 1803 2).1812 3) 1825 4).1837

10. Which of the listed persons in the first quarter of the 19th century was the author of the draft for the convocation of the State Duma, a legislative body formed from deputies of the estates?

1.M.M.Speransky 2.A.A.Arakcheev 3.K.P.Pobedonostsev 4.A.Kh.Benkendorf

11. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. at the head of the largest administrative units in the Russian state were high-ranking officials who carried out administrative, police and military functions:

1.governors 2.commissars 3.posadniks 4.mayors

12. The foundation in Russia is connected with the activities of M.M. Speransky:

1. Moscow University 2. ministries 3. zemstvos 4. secret office

13. The work of a serf on the land of a landowner in the first half of the 19th century was called: 1. dues 2. corvee 3. help 4. working off

14. Among the reasons that prompted Alexander I to start developing projects of liberal reforms, there was the influence of:

1.theories of "official nationality"

2.theories of communal socialism

3.Enlightenment ideas

4. ideas of Slavophilism

15. In the 19th century, the most numerous social group It was:

1.peasantry 2.nobility 3.philistinism 4.merchants

16. The trade in serfs at the beginning of the 19th century was carried out in the most cynical forms. Alexander I forbade:

1. sell peasants to foreigners

2. trade in serfs at fairs

3. sell family members individually

4.publish ads for the sale of people

5. sell peasants without land

17. M.M. Speransky proposed to lay the principle of the state system: 1. Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality

2.rule of judgments

3. combinations of single presence and collegiality

4. democratic centralism

5.separation of powers

18. The decree on free cultivators (1803) provided:

1. dissolution of military settlements

2. release of peasants for ransom at the request of the landowner

3. redemption at the expense of the treasury and the resettlement of peasants in Siberia

4. transfer of recruits from serfs to the Cossacks with allotment of land

5. transfer of assigned peasants to the category of state

19. Instead of colleges, Alexander I created 8 ministries, which differed:

1.combination of collegiality with personal responsibility

2. accountability only to the Senate

3. the principle of unity of command

4. obligatory public election of the minister and his deputies

5. complete lack of control and arbitrariness of officials.

20. In what year did Emperor Alexander I ascend to the throne?

1).1800 2). 1801 3). 1802 4).1803

21. The circle of closest friends of Alexander I, an unofficial advisory body under the emperor, was called: 1. Chosen Rada

2.Secret committee

3. Indispensable advice

4. Supreme Privy Council

22. The decree of Alexander I, according to which the landlords could release their serfs from the land for a ransom, was published:

one). 1801 2). 1803 3). 1804 4).1809

23. The highest judicial body of the Russian Empire:

1.Holy Synod 2.Governing Senate

3. Committee of Ministers 4. Cabinet of Ministers

24. In what year was the State Council established?

1).1810 2). 1807 3).1803 4).1801

25. Which of these events took place in 1802?

1. opened a university in St. Petersburg

2. started provincial reform

3. issued a decree on the abolition of serfdom in the Baltic States

4. established ministries

26. At the beginning of the 19th century, the highest judicial body of the Russian Empire was
1. Council of State 2. Senate

3. Imperial Chancellery 4. Committee of Ministers

27. Which of the listed statesmen of the early 19th century was the author of the project “Introduction to the code of state laws”, which was based on the principle of separation of powers?

1.M.M.Speransky 2.P.A.Stroganov 3.N.N.Novosiltsev 4.A.A.Arakcheev

28. Read an excerpt from the work of V.O. Klyuchevsky and indicate the name of the statesman about whom in question.

“Already under Paul, he gained fame in the Petersburg bureaucratic world. Upon the accession of Alexander, he was transferred to the Permanent Council ... All the most important draft laws issued since 1802 were edited […] as the head of the department of the Ministry of the Interior.

1.M.Speransky 2.A.Chartorysky 3.N.Novosiltsev 4.A.Arakcheev

29. Which of the listed members of the secret committee became the Minister of the Interior?

1.V.P.Kochubey 2.P.A.Stroganov 3.A.A.Chartorysky 4.N.N.Novosiltsev

30. Peasants were recognized as hereditary owners of their land plots: 1. in the central part of European Russia

2. in Siberia

3. in Poland

4. in the Baltics

31. classlessness in the education system was introduced during the reform:

1).1802 2). 1803 3).1811 4).1814

32. A system of views that defended the need to preserve the existing state orders, economic relations, laws, etc.

1. liberalism 2. oligarchy 3. conservatism 4. freemasonry

33. Educator of Alexander I, who instilled young heir liberal views:

1.P.Palen 2.I.Shuvalov 3.N.Panin 4.F.Laharpe

34. In 1810, for the consideration and preparation of the most important state laws, a

1. Council of State 2. Elected Council

3. Elected Council 4. Council of Ministers

35. M. Speransky expressed the idea of ​​introducing in Russia

1.constitutional monarchy

2.unlimited monarchy

3.Republican form of government

4.federated device

36. In order to save state budgetary funds for the maintenance of the army,

1.hard labor

2.guards regiments

3.produced the abolition of serfdom in the Baltic States

4.military settlements

37. Alexander I abolished serfdom:

1. in Ukraine 2. in Poland 3. in Novorossiya 4. in the Baltics

38. The idea of ​​a constitutional monarchy was one of the first in Russia expressed by:

1.N.M.Karamzin 2.M.M.Speransky 3.S.P.Rumyantsev 4.D.N.Senyavin

1.M.M.Speransky 2.Alexander I 3.N.N.Novosiltsev 4.A.A.Arakcheev

40. The reform of public education was launched by decree of Alexander I:

one). 1801 2). 1803 3). 1815 4).1825

41. For the economic policy of Alexander I in 1801-1812. was (a) characteristic (a)

1.selection public funds for the construction of manufactories

2.reducing the cost of the army

3. Encouraging the export of goods from Russia

4.development of measures to limit serfdom

42. In what year was the Russian-American Company established?

1) in 1799 2).1803 3).1808 4).1824

43. The name of A.A. Arakcheev is associated with:

1. activities of the Private Committee

2. the creation of military settlements

3. development of the "Charter of the Russian Empire"

4. guerrilla war in 1812

44. The principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial was contained in the draft

1.P.Pestelya 2.N.Muravyov 3.N.Novosiltseva 4.M.Speransky

45. The years of the reign of Alexander I are characterized by:

1. the appearance of the first secret societies in Russia

2.opening of the first university

3. annexation of Novorossiya

4.Suppression of the Polish uprising

46. ​​Which of the listed statesmen prepared a draft customs tariff in 1810?

1.A.Arakcheev 2.V.Kochubey 3.N.Novosiltsev 4.M.Speranskaya

47. One of the first steps of the Private Committee was:

1.creation of military settlements

2. development of the Polish constitution

3. Development of a project for the abolition of serfdom in the Baltic States

4. amnesty for all victims under Paul I

Foreign policy before the Patriotic War of 1812. (Option 1)

1. The territory of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 19th century included:

1.Ukraine 2.Eastern Siberia 3.Finland 4.Khiva Khanate

2. The continental blockade organized by France was unprofitable for Russia, and trade with England began to be carried out:

1. via Denmark

2. on the high seas by transshipment from ship to ship

3. on American ships

4. through Finland, which became a separate part of the Russian Empire

5. quite openly, and a customs war broke out between Russia and France.

3. At the head of the Russian army, operating in the south against Turkey in 1811, was placed: 1.P.I.Bagration 2.M.I.Kutuzov 3.A.P.Tormasov

4.N.N.Raevsky 5.M.B.Barclay de Tolly

4. At the beginning of the 19th century, a series of wars was going on in Europe, in which Russia was also involved. Russia concluded a military alliance with England and Austria against France in ... year.

1).1805 2).1804 3)1803 4)1802 5) 1801

5. By the beginning of the 19th century, the territory of the Russian Empire already included:

1. North Caucasus 2. Central Asia 3. Finland 4. Ukraine

6. The Duchy of Warsaw was created:

1. on the territory of Prussia after the third partition of the Commonwealth

2. on the territory of Russia on the initiative of Paul I

3. at the insistence of Napoleon at the conclusion of the Tilsit peace

4. in accordance with the decisions of the Congress of Vienna

5. by the will of Alexander I

7. After the conclusion of the Tilsit peace, Russia waged war (wars) with:

1.Turkey 2.Turkey and Iran 3.Iran and Afghanistan

4. Afghanistan and Turkey 5. Turkey and Greece

8. At the head of the Russian army, operating in the south against Turkey, in 1811 was put:

1.P.I.Bagration 2.M.B.Barclay de Tolly 3.M.I.Kutuzov

4.A.P.Tormasov 5.N.N.Raevsky

9. In 1812, the border between Russia and Turkey was established:

1. along the Prut River

2. Bessarabia crossed over the Prut River and Russia

3. along the Prut River and Russia passed Bukovina

4. along the rivers Prut and Bug

5. along the rivers Prut, Bug and Danube

10. According to the Tilsit Peace Treaty, concluded in 1807. Napoleon and Alexander I, Russia:

1.lost Moldova

2.ceded to Wallachia

3. did not suffer territorial losses, but was forced to join the Continental blockade (i.e. break off trade relations with England)

4. entered the war with Sweden with France

5.transferred to France the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw

The foreign policy of Alexander I before the Patriotic War of 1812. (Option 2)

1. At the beginning of the 19th century, there was a series of wars in Europe, in which Russia was also drawn. Russia concluded a military alliance with England and Austria against France in ... year

2. The Russian-Iranian war over disputed territories began in ... year.

1).1801 2).1802 3).1803 4).1804 5).1805

3. In the reign of Alexander I, the war with Iran was fought because of:

1).Georgia 2).Armenia 3).Azerbaijan 4).Disputed territories

5). Predominance in the Caspian Sea

4. The allies in the anti-French coalition acted inconsistently and suffered a number of defeats. In June 1807, Napoleon defeated the Russian army under:

1.Tilsit 2.Friedlan 3.Kinburn 4.Jägersdorf 5.Waterloo

5. The long-term military conflict with Turkey at the beginning of the 19th century was settled:

1.simultaneously with Turkey and France, signing in 1807. Peace of Tilsit

2. by the end of 1810

3. 1810

4. towards the end of 1811

5. about a month before Napoleon's invasion of Russia (in May 1812)

6. The battle of Austerlitz, where the Russian and Austrian troops were defeated by the Napoleonic army, took place in .... year.

1).1805 2).1804 3).1803 4).1802 5).1801

7. Uncommon diplomatic skill in negotiations with the Turks in 1812 was shown by: 1.M.I.Kutuzov 2.A.S.Menshikov 3.P.I.Bagrationa

4.N.N.Raevsky 5.A.N.Tormasova

8. In 1809: 1. Finland was annexed

2. created ministries instead of collegiums

3. issued a decree on free cultivators

4. Treaty of Tilsit concluded

5. annexed by Georgia

9. Finland became part of the Russian Empire as a result of the war:

1. with Sweden 2. Northern 3. Livonian 4. 1st world 5. Seven years

10. According to the Bucharest peace treaty in 1812, Russia was joined by:

1.Bessarabia

2. Abkhazia and part of Georgia

3. Abkhazia, part of Georgia and Bessarabia

4. Bessarabia and Wallachia

5. Bessarabia, Wallachia and part of Serbia

11. In 1806, declaring war on Russia, the Turkish sultan hoped to return:

1. Crimea 2. Crimea and Georgia 3. Georgia and Bessarabia

4. Bessarabia, Abkhazia 5. Abkhazia and part of Georgia

The foreign policy of Alexander I before the Patriotic War of 1812.

1. Turkey in the war against Russia in 1806-1812 was supported by:

1.England 2.France 3.Prussia 4.Italy

2. Eastern Georgia became part of the Russian Empire:

one). 1801 2). 1807 3). 1811 four). 1815

3. The third coalition against Napoleon in 1805 was:

1. Russia, Prussia, Sweden.

2. Russia, England, Switzerland.

3. Russia, England, Austria.

4. Russia, Italy, Austria

4. In 1812, Russia ended the war

1. with Sweden. 2. with Turkey 3. with Persia 4. with Iran

5. The battle of Austerlitz took place:

one). 1801 2). 1805 3). 1807 four). 1812

6. The Peace of Tilsit between Russia and France was signed:

one). 1807 2). 1810 3). 1812 four). 1815

7. Which of the following events took place in 1809?

1. Russia went to war with Turkey

3. Finland was annexed to Russia

4. Created a Private Committee

8. Russia was forced to join the continental blockade of England in accordance with the treaty concluded:

1) in 1803 2). 1807 3). 1814 four). 1817

9. Bessarabia was annexed to Russia:

one). 1807 2). 1812 3). 1815 four). 1822

10. Name the city in the battle near which Napoleon defeated the Aust-Russian troops in 1805: 1.Tilsit 2.Austerlitz 3.Warsaw 4.Vienna

11. Under the terms of the Tilsit peace, Russia was forced to join the "continental blockade" against:

1.England 2.France 3.Turkey 4.USA

Patriotic War of 1812

1. Which of the following happened during the Patriotic War of 1812?

1.battle near the Berezina River 2.Sinop battle

3. Moscow fire 4. Brusilovsky breakthrough

5. Tarutinsky march-maneuver 6. battles for the Shipka Pass

2. In what year did the battle of Borodino take place?

one). 1807 2). 1812 3). 1814 four). 1818

3. Which of the listed military leaders became famous during the Patriotic War of 1812? 1.P.I.Bagration 2.A.A.Brusilov

3. A. V. Suvorov 4. P. S. Nakhimov

4. In 1812, the Russian troops managed to force Napoleon to retreat along the devastated Smolensk road as a result of the battle:

1. near Borodino 2. near Lesnaya 3. near the Berezina 4. near Maloyaroslavets

5. The call to create against Napoleon civil uprising contained in:

1. Decree of Alexander I on a new recruitment set

2. Kutuzov's order on the creation of flying cavalry units

3. manifesto of the Bishop of Smolensk Iriney

4. Rescript of Alexander I to Bishop Irinei of Smolensk

5. magazine publications and leaflets (“posters”) of the Moscow Governor-General Count Rostopchin

6. The battle of Borodino took place:

7. What decision did M.I. Kutuzov make in 1812? at the military council in the village of Fili?

1. Withdraw Russian troops from Moscow without a fight

2. Give battle near the Berezina River

3. Conclude a peace agreement with Napoleon

4. Give a battle at Borodino

8. As a result of the retreat of the Russian troops in the first months of the Patriotic War of 1812: 1.Napoleon defeated the 1st and 2nd Russian armies separately

2. French army approached St. Petersburg

3. the French army managed to capture Kyiv

4. Russian armies managed to connect near Smolensk

9. During which war was the Tarutinsky march maneuver carried out?

1. Seven-year 1756-1763 2. Patriotic 1812

3 Crimean 1853-1856 4. Russian-Turkish 1877-1878

10. In collecting money (2.4 million rubles) for the war with Napoleon, a patriotic impulse was expressed: 1. capital officials 2. Moscow nobility

3. army officers 4. Moscow merchants

5. wealthy Old Believers and ordinary believers

11. In the Moscow region, a detachment of 500 cavalry and over 5 thousand foot peasants operated against the French under the command of: 1.IS Dorokhov.

2. elder Vasilisa Kozhina 3. serf Gerasim Kurin

4.poet and hussar Denis Davydov 5.lieutenant colonel A.S. Figner

12. The call to create a people's militia against Napoleon was contained:

1. in the decree of Alexander I on the new recruitment

2. in the order of Kutuzov on the creation of flying cavalry units

3. in the manifesto of the Bishop of Smolensk Iriney

4. in the rescript of Alexander I to Bishop Irinei of Smolensk

13. A partisan detachment of retired soldiers and peasants, who acted against the French in the Moscow region, was organized by a lieutenant colonel:

1. A.S. Figner 2. I.S. Dorokhov 3. V.V. Orlov-Denisov

4. D.V.Davydov 5.A.N.Seslavin

14. The most tangible damage to the Napoleonic troops was inflicted by partisans under the command of: 1. E.V. Chetvertakova 2. E.V. Chetvertakova and G.M. Kurina

3. G.M.Kurina and V.Kozhina 4. V.Kozhina and A.N.Seslavina

5.A.N.Seslavina and D.V.Davydova

15. With the ladies, he spoke in French, in letters to his wife he spoke in the old-fashioned language of the 18th century, and in conversations with peasants and soldiers he used simple and colorful Russian. This is how the hero of the Patriotic War of 1812 was characterized: 1.M.I.Kutuzov 2.D.V.Davydov 3.P.I.Bagration

16. Having settled in Moscow, Napoleon, without waiting for proposals for peace, turned himself. Against peace with France was (was): 1.army

2. Empress Mother Maria Feodorovna 4. Brother of the Tsar Konstantin

3. Tsar's favorite A.A. Arakcheev 5. Chancellor N.P. Rumyantsev

17. Lieutenant Colonel penetrated into Moscow, occupied by the French, and sent reports to Kutuzov's headquarters: 1. A. S. Figner 2. D. V. Davydov 3. I. S. Dorokhov

4.A.N.Seslavin 5.V.V.Orlov-Denisov

18. During the Patriotic War of 1812, the Russian emperor achieved the greatest success:

1. in the organization people's militias in St. Petersburg and in Moscow

2. in the diplomatic field

3. in the formation of partisan detachments and the organization of partisan warfare

4.when recruiting mercenary detachments abroad

5.formation of national regiments from the indigenous inhabitants of the outskirts of Russia.

19. To reinforce the troops that covered St. Petersburg in 1812, the militias were used: 1. Tver and Ryazan 2. Tula and Kaluga

3. Petersburg and Novgorod 4. Kaluga and Tver

5.Yaroslavskoe and Vladimirskoe.

20. Under pressure public opinion In 1812, Alexander I appointed M.I. Kutuzov as commander-in-chief of the Russian army, and also granted him the title:

1.Highest Prince 2.Field Marshal 3.Count

4.state councilor 5.senator for life

21. The numerical superiority of the Napoleonic army required the replenishment of the Russian troops. Alexander I on July 6, 1812 issued a manifesto:

1. About the new recruiting kit

2. introduced universal military service

3. with a call to create a people's militia

4. prescribing to form national divisions from the peoples of the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia.

5. allowing the distribution of weapons to serfs

22. The militia from the city participated in the Battle of Borodino:

1.Petersburg 2.Moscow 3.Yaroslavl 4.Tver 5.Tula

23. The rescript of Alexander I to Bishop Irinei of Smolensk, sent in July 1812, legitimized: 1. calling non-Orthodox to serve in the Russian army

2. guerrilla war

3. formation of detachments of mercenaries from abroad

4. the obligation of all nobles under 35 years old to come to serve in the army

5. Conscription for the service of residents of autonomous Finland

24. The first partisan detachments appeared in 1812:

1.in the Belarusian Polissya 4.in the Bryansk region

2. in the Smolensk region 5. in Kaluga and Maloyaroslavets

3.in the suburbs

25. During the war of 1812, the peasant partisan detachment was headed by:

1.G.M.Kurin 2.A.N.Seslavin 3.M.I.Platov

4.D.V.Davydov 5.A.S. Figner

26. The commander-in-chief of the Russian army in the summer of 1812 was appointed:

1. M. Barclay de Tolly 2. D. V. Davydova 3. P. I. Bagration

4.N.N.Raevsky 5.A.N.Tormasova

27. The battery, which was in the center of the combat disposition of the Russian troops on the Borodino field, was commanded by:

1.N.Raevsky 2.P.Bagration 3.D.Davydov 4.F.Uvarov

28. The battle of Borodino - the main battle of the Patriotic War of 1812 - took place 1). June 12, 1812 2) July 28, 1812

29. During the Patriotic War of 1812, a battle took place:

1. near Lesnaya 2. near the Berezina 3. near Kunersdorf 4. near Austerlitz

30. The following events are associated with the names of A. Figner and D. Davydov:

1. Patriotic War of 1812 2.Russian-Turkish war

3.Russian-Iranian war 4.Russian-Swedish war

31. Tarutinsky maneuver Russian troops made during the war:

1.France 2.Turkey 3.Iran 4.Sweden

32. Famous hussar, poet and partisan:

1.F.Uvarov 2.A.Figner 3.D.Davydov 4.G.Kurin

33. What battle are we talking about? “... the general battle of the war of 1812. But it did not give a pronounced success to either side ... the battle marked a crisis in the Napoleonic strategy of a general battle.

1. near Smolensk 2. near Borodino

3.near Maloyaroslavets 4.near the Berezina river

34. Mark who you are talking about. The commander, general of infantry, participant in the Italian and Swiss campaigns of A.V. Suvorov, commander of the 2nd Russian army in the campaign of 1812, during the Battle of Borodino commanded the left flank and was mortally wounded.

1 M. Barclay de Tolly 2. A. Ermolov

3.P.I.Bagration 4.N.N.Raevsky

35. What is the date of the start of Napoleon's campaign against Russia.

Foreign campaign of the Russian army (1 option)

1. Which of the events listed below are associated with the actions of the anti-Napoleonic coalitions?

1.battle of Leipzig

2.battle of Austerlitz

3. Battle of Waterloo

4. defense of Shipka

5. Formation of the Triple Alliance

6. defense of Sevastopol

2. What was one of the results of Russia's victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Foreign Campaign of the Russian Army in 1813-1814?

1. Strengthening Russia's positions in Europe

2. Russia's conquest of access to the Baltic Sea

3. Formation of the Triple Alliance

4. The entry of Prussia into the Russian Empire.

3. Russian troops as part of the allied forces won the battle of Leipzig in:

1).1805 2).1813 3).1854 4).1878

4. The foreign campaign of the Russian army ended in:

one). 1812 2) 1813 3).1814 4).1825

5. What was one of the results of Russia's victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaign of the Russian army in 1813-1814?

1. Russia's conquest of access to the Sea of ​​Azov

2. entry into the Russian Empire of a part of the Crimean peninsula

3. Russia's conquest of access to the Baltic Sea

4. entry into the Russian Empire of the Kingdom of Poland

6. The city of Vyborg was included in Finland by decision:

1.Peter I

2.Catherine II

3.Paul I

4. Alexandra I

5. Congress of Vienna 1815

7. By decision of the Congress of Vienna in 1815, a significant part of Poland with Warsaw became part of Russia under the name:

1.Duchy of Warsaw

2.Privilensky region

3. Commonwealth

4.Eastern Poland

5.Kingdom of Poland

8. The annexation of part of Poland with Warsaw to the Russian Empire took place after Russia's participation in:

1. Northern war

2. Seven Years' War

3. Wars of 1812-1814

4. Wars of 1805-1807

5. The third partition of Poland in 1795.

Foreign campaign of the Russian army (2 option)

1.Austria 2.Prussia 3.England 4.Sweden 5.Saxony

10. The Holy Alliance in 1815 included:

1. France, Russia, England

2. Russia, Prussia, Austria

3. Russia, England, Turkey

4. Russia, Austria, Italy

11. When retreating from Moscow, the Emperor of France, Napoleon, turned onto the old Smolensk road after the battle:

1.near the village of Tarutina

2. near Maloyaroslavets

3.at the Berezina

4.near Smolensk

12. Troops of the anti-Napoleonic coalition entered Paris:

13. The Holy Alliance was created for the purpose of:

1.providing economic assistance to European states affected by Napoleonic aggression

2.political support of monarchies in the fight against revolutions

3.for military support of European states in the capture of new colonies

4.Napoleon's guard on the island of Elba

14. What was one of the results of the foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814? 1. strengthened the position of Russia in the international arena

2. Russia has increased its influence in the Balkans

3. a constitutional monarchy was established in France

4. Russia abandoned the conquered territories in Europe

15. A political or military alliance between states is called:

1.congress 2.coalition 3.commonwealth 4.assembly

16. The Holy Alliance was created for the purpose of:

1.military support for England in the fight against its American colonies

2.providing economic assistance to European states affected by Napoleonic aggression

3.Political support in the fight against European revolutions

4.expanding cultural contacts between European states

Russia after the Patriotic War of 1812.

1. In December 1825, the following constitutional norms were in force on the territory of the Russian Empire:

1.everywhere 2.everywhere except Siberia 3.in Bessarabia

4. In the Kingdom of Poland 5. only in the draft constitution of N.M. Muravyov

2. Which of these figures was a confidant of Alexander I, a conductor of his domestic policy in 1815-1825?

1.S.Yu.Witte 2.M.M.Speransky 3.N.N.Novosiltsev 4.A.A.Arakcheev

3. The representative of Alexander I in the Polish government became a participant in the drafting of the Polish constitution: 1.A.A.Czartorysky 2.V.P.Kochubey 3.M.M.

4. One of the “young friends” took part in the drafting of the Polish constitution

Alexander I, future chairman of the State Council:

1. A. A. Czartorysky 2. V. P. Kochubey 3. P. A. Stroganov

4.P.A.Stroganov 5.P.A.Vyazemsky

5. Granting by Alexander I of the constitution to the Kingdom of Poland was:

1. tribute to revolutionary fashion

2. the beginning of the implementation of the ideas of the "circle of young friends" of the emperor

3. the manifestation of the old policy of "enlightened absolutism"

4.liberal concession under pressure from Polish nationalists

5. a kind of experiment in combining autocracy with the constitutional principles of government.

6. Alexander I, speaking in March 1818 at the opening of the Polish Sejm, promised to grant a constitution: 1. Finland 2. Bessarabia 3. Courland 4. Livonia 5. all of Russia

7. The Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland was granted by Alexander I in:

1).1815 2).1819 3).1820 4).1825

8. The legislature in the Kingdom of Poland in accordance with the Constitution granted by Alexander I was:

1.Seimas 2.State Council 3.Rada 4.States General

9. According to the Constitution, the Head of the Polish State was:

1.king 2.Russian emperor

3. Speaker of the Seimas 4. Chancellor

10. Emperor Alexander I granted the constitution:

1.Poland 2.Georgia 3.peoples of Serbia 4.peoples of the Caucasus

11. For the domestic policy of Alexander I after the war of 1812 was (o) characteristic (o):

1.saving the state budget

2. Development of a project for the abolition of serfdom in Central Russia

3. introduction of the New Trade Charter

12. A manifesto on Russia's exclusive rights to Alaska was published

1).1804 2).1815 3).1821 4).1825

13. The Kingdom of Poland was created and annexed to Russia

1).1807 2).1814 3).1821 4).1825

14. The idea of ​​freeing the peasants by buying them out by the state from the landlords belonged to: 1.N. Muravyov 2.P. Pestel 3.N.Novosiltsev 4.A.

Decembrist movement (1 OPTION)

1. Which of the events listed below related to the Decembrist movement? (3 answers) 1. Speech on Senate Square

2. Walking among the people

5. Organization of strikes

2. The activity of the Northern Society of Decembrists refers to:

one). 1790-1796 2). 1821-1825 3). 1836-1855 one). 1876-1881

3. In what year did the Decembrists perform on Senate Square in St. Petersburg? 1).1801 2).1816 3).1821 4).1825

4. P.I. Pestel was one of the leaders:

1. "Narodnaya Volya" 2. Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class

3. "Lands and freedoms" 4.Southern society

5. What was one of the reasons for the emergence of the Northern and Southern secret societies of the Decembrists?

1.defeat of Russia in the Crimean War

2. mass arrests of opposition representatives

3. introduction of an indefinite investigation of fugitive peasants

4. withdrawal of Alexander I from the policy of liberal reforms

6. What was one of the reasons for the defeat of the Decembrists on Senate Square in St. Petersburg?

1. Insufficient preparation for the armed action of the participants of the Southern Society.

2. Joint actions of Nicholas I and Grand Duke Constantine against the Decembrists.

3. Failure to appear on Senate Square S.P. Trubetskoy, appointed dictator of the uprising.

4. The desire of the soldiers brought to the Senate Square to remain faithful to Nicholas I.

7. Which of the listed public figures was a member of the Southern Society of Decembrists?

1. S. G. Volkonsky 2. N. I. Novikov 3. N. M. Karamzin 4. A. N. Radishchev

8. One of the leaders of the Northern Society of the Decembrists, a poet, publisher of the almanac "Polar Star" was:

1.K.F.Ryleev 2.N.I.Novikov 3.A.N.Radishchev 4.P.Ya.Chaadaev

9. Ideas of the French and Russian enlighteners of the end of the 18th century, acquaintance with Europe during the foreign campaign of the Russian army in 1813-1814. influenced the ideological formation:

Decembrist movement (2 OPTION)

1. The program document of the "Northern Society" of the Decembrists was the Constitution, developed by: 1.N.M. Muravyov

2. A.N. Muraviev

3.P.I.Pestel

4. E.P. Obolensky

5. A.A. Bestuzhev

2. The following was appointed dictator during the preparation of the Decembrist uprising on Senate Square:

1).C. Trubetskoy 2).K.Ryleev 3).S.Volkonsky 4).P.Kakhovsky

3. The oath to Emperor Nicholas I was appointed to:

4. The idea of ​​freeing the peasants from serfdom and allocating them with land in the amount of two acres per household was contained in the draft constitution:

1.Novosiltseva 2.P.Pestel 3.N.Muravyov 4.M.Speransky

1. P.I.Pestel and P.Kakhovsky

2. M. Bestuzhev-Ryumin and N. Muraviev

3. S. Trubetskoy and S. Volkonsky

4. K. Ryleev and A. Yushnevsky

6. Which of the following events happened in 1816?

1. rebellion of the Semyonovsky regiment

2. Creation of the "Union of Salvation"

3. Creation of "" Welfare Society

7. At the head of the Southern secret society were:

1. N. Muravyov, S. Trubetskoy

2. N. Karamzin, D. Davydov

3. A. Yushnevsky, A. Tormasov

4. P. Pestel, M. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin

8. Republican form of government proposed to introduce in Russia:

1.N.Ants 2.P.Pestel 3.S.Trubetskoy 4.N.Karamzin

9. Which of the following events related to the Decembrist movement? (3 answers) 1. Speech on Senate Square

2. Walking among the people

3.Foundation of the "Free Russian Printing House"

4. Formation of the Northern Society

5. Organization of strikes

6. Development of policy documents: "Russian Truth", "Constitution".

Decembrist movement (3 OPTION)

1. The uprising of the Chernigov regiment happened:

1). In the 1810s. 2). In the 1820s. 3). In the 1830s four). In the 1840s

2. The following contributed to the emergence of the first secret societies in Russia:

1. spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment

2. wide dissemination in society of the ideas of liquidation of the monarchy

3. dissatisfaction of officers with small territorial acquisitions after the war of 1812.

4. unrealized ideas of M. Speransky

3. Mark who you are talking about. Born into an old noble family. Graduated from Moscow University. Member of the War of 1812; was a member of secret organizations: the Masonic Lodge of the Three Virtues, the Union of Salvation, the Union of Welfare, the Northern Secret Society. A supporter of a limited monarchy, opposed regicide.

1.P.Pestel 2.N.Ants 3.S.Volkonsky 4.A.Pushkin

4. Which of the following events related to the Decembrist movement? (3 answers) 1. Speech on Senate Square

2. Walking among the people

3.Foundation of the "Free Russian Printing House"

4. Formation of the Northern Society

5. Organization of strikes

6. Development of policy documents: "Russian Truth", "Constitution".

5. Which of the following provisions was typical for the Constitution of the Decembrists?

1. Preservation of the privileged position of the nobility

2. abolition of serfdom

3. expansion of powers of the Senate

4. Preservation of the Council of State

6. The soldiers of the rebellious Chernigov regiment were punished:

2.shipping to the Caucasus

3.demotion and dissolution of the regiment

4. condemnation to death

7. Members of the Northern Secret Society planned to start an uprising:

1.with the prevention of the oath of senators to the king

2.with the murder of the royal family

3. with an appeal to the people

4. with an appeal to all parts of the Russian army

8. Which of the following events gave rise to the Decembrist uprising?

1. abdication of Constantine from the right to the Russian throne

2.uprisings in military settlements

4. uprising of the Chernihiv regiment

9. The idea of ​​equality of all citizens before the law was contained in the draft constitution:

1.Novosiltseva 2.P.Pestel 3.A.Arakcheev 4.M.Speransky

Final test on the topic Alexander I

1. The establishment of ministries, the issuance of a decree on “free (free) cultivators”, the foundation of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, the granting of a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland was carried out during the reign of the emperor (empress):

1.Alexander I 2.Paul I 3.Catherine II 4.Nicholas I

2. With the reign of Alexander I, the emergence of the concept is associated: 1. Arakcheevshchina 2. Bironovshchina 3. county and provincial Zemstvos 4. temporarily liable peasants

3. The central government agencies founded in Russia in the first half of the 19th century, which were in charge of various sectors of the economy, were called:

1. colleges 2. orders 3. zemstvos 4. ministries

4. Russia recognized all the conquests of Napoleon in Europe in accordance with the agreement concluded:

1.in Stockholm 2.in Tilsit 3.in Bucharest 4.in Paris

5. In what year did the Congress of Vienna take place? 1).1807 2).1812 3).1814 4).1825

6. Name the chronological framework of the Russian-Iranian war.

1).1804-1813 2).1806-1812 3).1808-1809 4).1812-1814

7. The Grand Duchy of Finland was annexed to Russia as an autonomy:

1) in 1809 2) in 1815 3) in 1819 4) in 1824

8. Which of the following events happened before the others?

1.conclusion of the Bucharest peace 2.uprising on the Senate Square

3.creation of ministries 4.issuance of a decree "on free cultivators"

9. Mark one of the reasons for the emergence of secret societies in Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century: 1. the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment

2. public dissatisfaction with the activities of M. Speransky

3. the desire of the government to involve society in the development of reform projects

4. discontent of the church internal politics tsarist government

10. Which of the above refers to the policy of the reign of Alexander I? (2 answers)

1.Introduction of military settlements

2.opening of Moscow University

3.creation of the gendarmerie to fight the revolutionaries

4.Development of the Charter of the Russian Empire.

11. Read an excerpt from the work of A.O. Ishimova and write the name of the commander in question. “The prince ... was the same commander-in-chief of the Russian army in Turkey, who, with his art and courage, managed to force the Turks to conclude a much-needed peace for Russia, despite all the efforts of the French emperor to prevent it ... Empress Catherine II and emperors Paul and Alexander always showed him equal favor ... Returning after the glorious Turkish world to St. Petersburg, he was received by the inhabitants of the capital with admiration, all the more despondency was already widespread. The eyes of all with hope turned to the famous associate of Suvorov, and as soon as the militias of several provinces were ready to come to the army, both capitals unanimously named him the chief commander of this army ... Fully approving the intentions of Barclay de Tolly to finally give a general battle [he] chose for this place near the village of Borodino.

12. Which of the following events took place during the reign of Alexander I?

1. heroic passage of Russian troops through the Alps

2. entry of Novorossia into Russia

3.abolition of serfdom in the Baltics

4. Foreign campaigns of the Russian army

5. Creation of the Holy Alliance

6.participation of Russian troops in the suppression of revolutions in Europe

1). 1.3.5 2).2.5.6 3).3.4.5. 4).1.2.6.

13. Establish a correspondence between the names of historical figures and their activities.