The cubit is a measure of length. Elbow length. Elbow measurement. How hunters for spy satellites serve Symptoms of elbow arthrosis of the initial stages

27.09.2020

The elbow as a part of the body, or rather, "the place of the bend on the arm", is well known to everyone. Also, no one is surprised by the second meaning of this word, which is related to clothing. This is the place on the sleeve where it comes into contact with But today, not everyone already knows that for several centuries given word was widely used in the third, now obsolete meaning: the cubit is a measure of length. It was used at different times by many peoples in different parts of the world, including the inhabitants of the first ancient Russian state, and later - the Russian Empire.

Elbow - a measure of length?

The reason for the emergence of such an unusual from the point of view of modern man The meaning of the word was actually quite simple. Before the advent of traditional centimeters and other units of measurement that are familiar to us today, it was easiest to focus on what is familiar. These are, for example, various parts of the human body. In addition, they were always "with you." What is the length of the fingers and hand or the size of the average step? How much weight can a person lift at one time? What is the distance between the stretched thumb and forefinger? The answers to these and other similar questions helped in the old days to determine the weight, length, height of objects. Of course, the data obtained were approximate and usually varied, but under conditions total absence a common system of measurement for all, they almost completely solved the problem of determining quantities. Trying to improve and improve the results of their work, people gradually came to the conclusion that in certain territories (sometimes even within the same state), quite specific data began to be assigned to each unit.

What did our compatriots use in the old days

The ancient measure of length in Russian lands could have different names: vershok, span, cubit, arshin (or step), sazhen, verst. Some appeared earlier, others a little later, but all of them were generally accepted in the state for quite a long time. Small units were widely used in the domestic sphere, the last two - most often to determine large distances between postal stations and settlements.

Measurement by the elbow was widespread in trade and at first it was ideal for merchants and shop owners when selling small pieces of linen, canvas, and cloth. With it, the landowners could easily determine the length of a hemp rope or wool yarn in a skein. The elbow was also used in construction, for example, to determine the size of window and door openings.

In Russia, there were several variants of this simple and convenient measure. So, they distinguished a large elbow, which was two times larger than the usual one and was the length of the arm from the shoulder to the fingertips. For some time, it was the most popular measurement system in trade (later they began to measure arshin in a similar way). There also existed an incomplete, two-palmar, Ivan (it was officially fixed in Veliky Novgorod and its environs) elbow. For at least five or six centuries, this ancient measure of length was officially recognized and used throughout the Russian state. And the very word "elbow" for a very long time was associated primarily with this meaning. And only from the beginning of the 16th century, in written sources, the well-known meaning to us began to be assigned to it - the fold on the arm.

How is elbow size determined?

The main question that is usually of interest to people who discover today the outdated meaning of the word is: “How much is an elbow?”

In search of an answer, you should first turn to official sources - explanatory dictionaries. Their well-known and authoritative compilers S. Ozhegov and D. Ushakov give a similar definition in one of the meanings, now marked “outdated”. They have a cubit - a measure of length used on the territory of the ancient Russian state and equal to approximately half a meter. However, if you turn to other literature, you can find completely different figures. Most often, 46-47 cm are given. Somewhere you can find a size of 38-46 cm and even more than 50 cm. Naturally, the question arises by itself: "What was the cubit in the old days and what caused such a difference in determining its length?"

Arguing on this topic, it should be remembered that initially, even before the spread of numbers and units of measurement of various quantities, parts of the human body served as a “source” for determining their sizes, including the same elbow. However, all people have different physical data and capabilities. Consequently, the distance from the elbow bend of the arm to the tip of the middle finger or clenched fist (this is how the size of this unit was determined) was individual for each person. So it turned out that on the territory of almost every province in the Russian state, the length of the elbow was different from the others. In order to somehow come to uniformity and restore order at least in one locality, mayors sometimes set specific samples for this unit of measurement, and then all traders in the markets and shops and buyers were guided by them. Such an order existed for quite a long time: from the 11th century (in any case, the first mention of the elbow in the Russkaya Pravda by Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise dates back to this time) and up to the 16th century. Then it was replaced by the arshin, which operated in the Russian Empire until the advent of modern units of measurement.

From the history of determining the size of the elbow

Very often, the key to understanding past historical phenomena is written sources that have preserved evidence of past events for centuries. So the data on the existing units of measurement can be obtained from books.

One of the first ancient Russian literary monuments was “The Journey of Hegumen Daniel to the Holy Land”, written at the very beginning of the 12th century. Its author, a former monk, led a pilgrimage to Palestine and compiled a kind of report based on its results. It was this work that partly helped contemporaries find the answer to the question: "An elbow is how much?"

The fact is that in the "Journey ..." is given detailed description the main shrine of Jerusalem - the Holy Sepulcher, including its actual dimensions. So, Daniel noted that the length and width of the monument correlate as four cubits to two. Later, already in the middle of the 17th century, another Russian clergyman, Patriarch Nikon, realized a very unusual, and for some, even a daring dream. On the shore, under his leadership, the majestic Voskresensky was erected, which practically repeated, but on a smaller scale, the famous Palestinian buildings. An exact copy of the Holy Sepulcher was arranged in it, which had the same dimensions as in the Holy Land, but only indicated by the builders in arshins and vershoks. It was these two facts associated with the names of Daniel and Nikon that subsequently made it possible, by comparing the available data and simple arithmetic calculations, to find out that officially 1 cubit was equal to 46.6 cm. This figure is most often found when it is mentioned.

Ivansky elbow

There is other evidence of what this popular unit of length was.

So, in the middle of the 20th century, during archaeological excavations in the territory of the ancient city of Nizhny Novgorod, things that were quite interesting from a historical point of view and related to this topic were discovered. One of them was a rod, most likely made from a hollow juniper trunk and well polished with the palms of the hands (this fact proves that it was constantly in use). And evenly and neatly cut edges indicated that the thing was preserved in its original form. After an examination and determination of the age of this unusual "wand", it was concluded that it could be a kind of standard of measure and operated in the city approximately in the 11th-12th centuries. At the same time, the length of the elbow (and the found rod corresponded to it to a greater extent) was 54.7 cm.

A few years earlier, a fifteen-centimeter fragment of a similar ruler was found in the same area, most likely dating back to a later period - the 14th century. Despite the damage, the Slavic inscription “Svatogoivanos” was even preserved on it.

These findings indicate that such standards could indeed exist, if not in all, then in the largest provincial centers. And they played the role of a control measure of length in the sale. Thus, the authorities tried to protect the interests of merchants and buyers.

Which is longer: a fathom or a cubit?

In 1017, the famous monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra Nestor, who went down in history as the first chronicler, mentions another native Russian unit of measurement. This is a sazhen, which occupied the next place after the elbow in the scale. Its length was again approximate and was determined in several ways. The most famous and common is the distance between the fingertips of hands spread apart in different directions (this is a fly fathom). Another measurement option is from top to bottom from shoulder level to the floor. Finally, a straight line diagonally from the toe of the left foot to the toes right hand raised up The word itself was formed from the Old Russian verb "sagat", which had the meaning "as far as you can reach with your hand." All this already, in fact, gives an answer to the question of what is longer - a sazhen or an elbow.

More accurate information can be obtained by getting acquainted with the following facts. More than ten names were distributed in Russia different options fathoms: small, oblique (or oblique), urban, flywheel, royal, masonry and others. Their size ranged from 1.34 meters to two and a half or more. In addition, there is a story about a found stone with an inscription in the Slavic language. Prince Gleb, mentioned in it, was taken in the district, and to fix the results he used the most suitable measure of length for this - a sazhen. Much later, topographers, having studied the record and the relief on the ground, concluded that on average it was approximately one and a half meters. These data coincided with the dimensions of the sazhen, which were indicated by the architects in various sources related to construction. It also often served to determine not very large distances.

Thus, data analysis leads to the conclusion that a larger measure of length is a sazhen. The elbow was an order of magnitude shorter, which means it was more suitable for measuring small objects in everyday life.

Arshin instead of elbow

Since the 16th century, measuring with the elbow has gradually become a thing of the past. Moreover, several reasons for this phenomenon can be identified. One of them is related to the fact that at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries the “Trade Book” was published, intended for merchants and other sellers. She introduced a new measuring unit - arshin - and fixed its approximate size - 71 cm. It was determined by measuring the distance from the shoulder to the end of the middle finger of the outstretched hand. Unlike the original Russian "elbow", this word was "foreigner". It came to Russia from the East during the period of active development of trade relations between countries. The book gave a table of measures of length, in which the following ratio of the new and old units was indicated: two arshins were equal to three cubits. For some time they existed in parallel and differed in the scope of use. Russian merchants still resorted to the elbow, while foreign merchants - to the arshin. Gradually, the latter began to be used more and more often. The first one began to lose its significance, and this despite the fact that it was he who for a long time was the main unit of measurement in trade.

Another reason lies in the fact that not all goods sold are conveniently wound around the elbow. It was much more convenient to measure the same fabric in meters. In addition, despite all the steps taken in the provinces, the size of the cubit differed significantly among different merchants. And this ultimately led to an increase in discontent among the population. As a result, by the end of the 17th century, the original Russian unit of measurement - the cubit - had almost completely fallen out of use. Arshin, on the other hand, held out in Russia until the beginning of the 20th century, when a new system of measurement, close to the European one, was introduced.

Standards also played a certain role in the “struggle” between Russian and “foreign” units - this is how the wooden rulers with divisions applied to them were called. It was they who soon began to play the role of arshin. The next stage of its approval in Russia is noted at the moment when the small span and vershok began to correlate with the new unit. And in order to exclude deception of buyers (each merchant initially measured the goods with his ruler - just remember the saying “Measure on your own arshin”), the state introduced the so-called “state arshin”, which had special metal rivets at the ends. Naturally, such a measurement of length was more convenient than using the elbow.

As for the origin and meaning of the word "arshin", no unambiguous explanation was given here. Some associated its appearance with the Turkic "ar" ("earth"), others - with the Persian "arsh" ("elbow"). Moreover, supporters of the first option concluded that when arshin appeared, it could correlate with the size of a human step.

The past of the country in folklore

For about a hundred years in Russia there has been a new system for measuring length, but evidence of the use of Old Russian units can often be found in works of art and folklore. In the latter case, this is not only evidence historical development people and the country as a whole, but also a kind of moral measure that has been developed over the centuries.

For example, the well-known proverb: “He is with a fingernail, and a beard with an elbow” indicates a person with an inconspicuous appearance, a nose with significant authority in society, earned thanks to intelligence, great life experience, or simply a stable social position. This interpretation goes back to pre-Petrine times. Then a lush, well-groomed beard was the pride of noble people. That is why, having lost it on the orders of Peter the Great, the boyars felt humiliated and insulted. This is how the unit of length "elbow" began to be used in a figurative, namely, estimated value.

Another example. The proverb: “In the wrong hands is a nail with an elbow”, which perfectly characterizes an envious and greedy person. Or: “You say on the fingernail, but they tell it on the elbow” - about an unkind rumor that tends to spread quite quickly.

Elbow in other countries of the world

A similar measure of length was used not only in Russia. It has been known among many peoples since ancient times (and in some European countries it acted until the beginning of the 19th century). As you can already guess, the size of the cubit in each country was different. As an example, the following international table of measures of length with this unit can be given.

Country	Size in centimeters
Egypt (small)
Egypt (royal)
Persia (pigon)
Persia (royal)



Far East

Like Russia, there were also varieties of elbow here: large, small and even double (99-99.6 cm) - the Sumerian king Lagash Gudea, who acted in the 22nd century BC. e. Usually merchants measured them with fabric or other similar goods.

A relic of the past or a convenient version of the line?

In our time, the outdated meaning of the word "elbow" - a measure of length, of course, is no longer used, and knowledge of its history is more evidence of the intellectual level of human development. However, in life there are often times when you urgently need to measure something, and there is neither a ruler nor the so-called centimeter nearby. This is where man-made measurements common in the distant past can come to the rescue. They will help to determine the size of small objects in a split second. To do this, it is enough to know, for example, what is the size of the distance between the extended forefinger and thumb (this is the Old Russian span) or arms outstretched to the sides (flying fathom).

It is very easy to find out what the cubit is equal to. The distance from the tip of the middle finger to the elbow bend is your individual measure of length.

In Karachay-Cherkessia, in the vicinity of Mount Chapal, at an altitude of about 2200 meters above sea level, there is a unique military facility - the Krona radio-optical recognition complex for space objects. With its help, the Russian military controls near and far space. The Rossiyskaya Gazeta journalist visited a specific military unit and found out how spy satellite hunters work and whether UFOs exist.

Two cubits on the map

However, getting into the military observatory was not so easy. First of all, I had to correct the permission to visit. Moreover, in the official request it was necessary to indicate not only your passport data, but also the data of the camera: model, serial number, specifications And so on. Then, of course, I asked the special officer why this was necessary, and received a very exhaustive answer: "In order to ensure national security. Service, you know.

However, the real test was yet to come.

According to the official address, the Krona space complex was located in the village of Storozhevaya-2, but neither on paper nor on electronic maps of such locality did not appear. For all search queries, the navigator showed only one small village of Storozhevaya, lost in the foothills of the Caucasus Range. And in the village itself, in order to find out the way to "Krona", I had to take "language" - to ask local residents about how to get to the unit. As landmarks, the villagers and the children named the bridge, the store with a colored sign, abandoned sheds, and when asked how far it was to the unit, as if by agreement, they answered: “Yes, it’s nearby. Two elbows on the map.”

This is the sense of humor of the Cossacks of the North Caucasus...

Winding among the fields and coniferous forest "concrete" unexpectedly led to the checkpoint. The lieutenant on duty at the checkpoint explained the correct route for a long time, and then, apparently, seeing my puzzled eyes, he said:

Let me better draw you how to get to the "cosmonauts". It's close... Two cubits on the map.

I did not let the officer down and, of course, I got lost. First I went to the town where the families of the military live. Then, winding through the horses walking along the road, he landed in the location of the mountain brigade. By the way, the mares and stallions that we met on the way turned out to be military men too - from the only horse platoon in the country.

Quite desperate, I did not notice how the openwork structures of snow-white antennas appeared against the background of the blue mountains. This was the brain center of "Krona" - a computer complex and a command and measurement center.

Land of the Flying Dogs

At the top of Mount Chapal there is a military observatory, the main link of which is a unique laser-optical locator (which will be discussed later), as well as several other objects for tracking outer space. However, the military site for astronomical observations themselves is called "the land of flying dogs." This is not a metaphor, but an eyewitness account of the strength of the winds on Chapal. Officers say that once during the construction of an optical telescope, a local dog was blown away by the wind here. They brought a few more, but they were all carried away. Perhaps this is an army bike, but the name stuck.

The winds here are really very strong, but the days and nights are almost clear. all year round. It was the peculiarities of the atmosphere that became the decisive factor in choosing the location of the future location of the Krona, - Major Sergei Nesterenko, deputy commander of the unit, told me.

The construction of the complex began at the height of the Cold War in 1979. Then the arms race went into outer space: about three thousand artificial satellites revolved around the Earth. In addition, it was necessary to follow the flights ballistic missiles probable adversary. The situation required urgent measures to create specialized means of controlling outer space. Soviet scientists have developed a complex that combines a radar station and an optical telescope. This design would make it possible to obtain maximum information about flying artificial satellites from reflective characteristics in the radio range to photographs in the optical range.

Before the collapse of the USSR, it was planned to use MiG-31D fighter-interceptors as part of the Krona complex, which were intended to destroy enemy satellites in near-Earth orbit. After the events of 1991, testing of space fighters ceased.

Initially, Krona was planned to be placed next to the civilian observatory in the village of Zelenchukskaya, but fears about the creation of mutual interference with such a close placement of objects led to the relocation of the radio-optical complex to the Storozhevoy area.

Construction and commissioning of all facilities of the complex stretched for many years. Officers of the Aerospace Defense Forces serving at the complex say that military builders accomplished a real feat when more than 350 kilometers of power supply lines were stretched in the mountains, over 40 thousand concrete slabs were laid, 60 kilometers of water pipes were laid ...

Although all the main work was completed in 1984, due to financial difficulties, the system was put into trial operation in November 1999. The adjustment of the equipment continued for several more years, and only in 2005 the Krona was put on combat duty. However, testing and modernization of the pearl of the complex - a laser optical locator - is still ongoing. After all, technology and science do not stand still.

Space debris portraitists

At the top of Mount Chapal are located the optical means of the system, and at the bottom - the radar. The uniqueness of the Krona complex lies precisely in the fact that there is no other facility in Russia where the capabilities of optical and radar facilities would be concentrated, - explained the deputy commander of the unit, Major Sergei Nesterenko.

The control of outer space begins with the observation of the hemisphere of the sky, the detection of space objects and the determination of their trajectory. Then they are photographed, that is, obtaining optical images, which allows you to determine appearance and movement parameters. The next stage of control is the determination of the reflective characteristics of a space object in the decimeter, centimeter and optical wavelength ranges. And as a result - object recognition, identification of its belonging, purpose and technical characteristics.

Optical means are located, as already mentioned, in the "land of flying dogs", where the atmosphere is cleaner and where there are much more nights with cloudless skies than on the plain.

The main instrument - an optical telescope with a highly directed hood - is located in one of the structures in the tower with a white dome that opens during operation.

It is this telescope, working as part of an optical-electronic system, that makes it possible to obtain images of space objects in the reflected sunshine at a distance of up to 40 thousand kilometers. Simply put, we see all objects, including those up to 10 centimeters in diameter, in near and far space, - said Major Alexander Lelekov, commander of the duty crew.

Next to the telescope there is a building, which houses the equipment of the passive autonomous detection channel (KAO). In automatic mode, it detects unknown objects in its region of the celestial sphere, determines their characteristics and transfers all this to the Space Control Center.

At the foot of Mount Chapal there is a computer complex and a command and measurement center. The second - radar - part of the complex is also located here. The radar station operates in the decimeter (channel "A") and centimeter (channel "H") ranges.

By the way, a ZIL-131 truck could freely turn around on the canvas of the channel "A" antenna.

As a result, a detailed portrait of a space object is formed in all required ranges. After computer processing, the data is sent to the Space Control Center in the Moscow region. There they are processed and entered into Main directory space objects, - says Major Lelekov. - Now only Americans have the opportunity to compile such an information base, who, in accordance with international treaties share this information regularly. According to the latest data, more than 10,000 space objects revolve around the Earth, including operating domestic and foreign satellites. Space debris should be included in a separate category, according to various estimates, there are up to 100 thousand units of various debris in orbit.

Why are they dangerous?

First of all, uncontrollability. A collision with them can lead to disruption of communications, navigation, as well as man-made accidents and disasters. For example, a small fragment a little over one centimeter in size can completely disable any satellite or even an orbital station like the ISS. But this is in space. And there are possible consequences associated with the fall of space objects to Earth. For example, once a week an object larger than one meter descends from orbit. And our task is precisely to foresee such a situation, to determine with what degree of probability it will occur, where, in what area there will be a fall. Situations related to changes in operating parameters, orbital characteristics, dangerous encounters, we consider daily.

Unfamiliar with UFO

Accompanied by officers, I pass into the holy of holies - command post parts. I am immediately warned that photography is limited here. It is strictly forbidden to remove the workplaces of those on duty.

Everywhere impeccable cleanliness. Unlike modern films, where the military or scientists demonstrate a lot of all kinds of equipment and computers, the interior here is spartan and more reminiscent of the atmosphere of the 80s. Karelian birch panels, bedside tables, desks, table lamps, dial phones...

On the walls there is self-made visual propaganda - hand-drawn posters about the Space Forces, the history of the unit. Tables with calculations, on which the readings of the locators are recorded in chalk. In the operating room, where several officers are on combat duty, there is a huge screen in front of the tables, on which the entire space situation is projected. Commands are heard from the speakers, understandable only to military stargazers.

Only the Russian banner, portraits of the President and Minister of Defense remind of the present. In the red corner - the icon of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker.

This was given to us by the local priest when he consecrated the optical locator, - says Alexander Lelekov.

I immediately remembered the ditties that were sung in 1961: "Gagarin flew into space - he did not see God." But, apparently, times are changing, and there are no atheists among the military.

After observing the work of the duty calculation, I ask the question: do you believe in astrology and have you ever met unidentified flying objects at work? After thinking for a few minutes, the major with a smile, like Yuri Gagarin, said:

Although I watch the stars and the cosmos, I do not believe in astrology. I have been in the army for many years, before the "Krona" I served on the "Pechora" and in the Moscow region, but I have never encountered a UFO. All objects that we observe have a reasonable origin.

By the way

On July 10, the military, who are watching space from the village of Storozhevaya-2, will celebrate the 35th anniversary of the formation of the unit. The first commander of the unique military unit was Colonel Valery Bilyk. The Krona complex, which has no analogues in the world, was created under the guidance of Doctor of Technical Sciences Vladimir Sosulnikov, chief designers Sergei Kuzenkov and Nikolai Belkin. The transportation and installation of the telescope's mirror in 1985 from Leningrad to the KChR took a whole month. Data on space observations carried out with the help of Krona are classified.

Pain in the joints is not always directly related to their pathology - often unpleasant sensations are caused by soft tissue damage. The most common of these is tenosynovitis (tenosynovitis), associated with inflammatory changes in the synovial membrane of the tendons. Normally, it provides additional support during movements, facilitating their implementation due to the lubricant contained within it.

Due to a variety of reasons, damage to this inner shell can occur, after which an inflammatory process starts in it. Unlike degenerative diseases of the joints and soft tissues, tenosynovitis is an acute process. Therefore, with the timely application of therapeutic measures, it is possible to quickly eliminate the symptoms of inflammation, relieving the patient from discomfort during movement.

Although the tendons pass near almost any joint, not every one of them is susceptible to the development of pathology. There are special points of the musculoskeletal system, where the development of tendovaginitis is most often observed. These include ligaments of the wrist, knee and ankle joints. All of them have characteristics development and course, although treatment in each case is carried out according to the same principles.

concept

Many patients are immediately frightened when they see a diagnosis of tenosynovitis in a card or statement - what is it? The incomprehensible name immediately creates associations with a terrible and incurable disease that will lead to a sharp deterioration in health. But, in fact, almost every person suffers this pathology under the guise of a slight injury during his life.

Tendovaginitis in more than 90% of cases is acute, and after completion does not leave any pathological changes. It is extremely rare (usually while maintaining the action of the provoking factor) it becomes chronic. To better understand this process, you should consider it from the point of view of anatomy and physiology:

To reduce friction in the joint area, some ligaments are enclosed in separate or common synovial sheaths. These structures have a structure similar to the shells of the joint.
The tendons are in their cavity quite freely due to the liquid lubricant inside - the synovial fluid. This position allows them to slide freely relative to the surrounding soft tissues during movements in the joint.
Any damage - external or internal - provokes the development of an immune response. An acute inflammatory process begins in the defect area.
Edema of the synovial sheath leads to its narrowing, as well as a decrease in lubrication. Therefore, the friction of the tendons during repetitive movements gradually increases, which leads to an increase in mutual damage.
Constant mechanical irritation leads to the activation of surrounding nerve endings, which contributes to the onset of symptoms of the disease.

The course of the disease depends entirely on the cause that caused its development - if the inflammation is nonspecific, then it is unlikely to leave pronounced consequences.

Development mechanisms

Although common ground for the disease is an inflammatory process, its appearance can cause a variety of factors. For convenience, they can be divided into two large groups - traumatic and specific:

Direct injury is much more common - it is associated with a direct blow to the area of the synovial sheath, or caused by functional overload of the tendon. But in each case, the pathological mechanism is the same - mechanical damage to the sheaths of the ligament. An inflammatory process develops in the area of the defect, which is aggravated by constant friction during movements.
Specific direct damage is associated with a penetrating wound of the synovial membrane, through which microbes enter it. They already cause a real immune response, often accompanied by the development of purulent inflammation.
A specific indirect lesion is considered reactive - this is a reflected reaction of the immune system to any general infection. Often, tenosynovitis becomes the outcome of a viral illness, manifesting itself a few days or weeks after recovery.

Despite the variety of mechanisms, the disease in each case has similar symptoms, the origin of which can only be determined by questioning the patient.

Localization

Since the disease has general principles of course, its manifestations in individual cases will also be very similar. Therefore, it is necessary to highlight some signs that are characteristic of the development of tenosynovitis:

The main symptom is always pain. His distinguishing feature- this is the appearance only with specific movements associated with the work of the affected tendon. At rest, the pain usually disappears completely.
An important diagnostic feature is the change in pain during active or passive movements. If a person himself performs flexion or extension, then the discomfort is more pronounced. This is due to the contraction of the muscles that actively act on the affected ligament.
With a superficial location of the focus, a change in the skin over the inflamed synovial vagina is noted. A small area of redness appears, which has rounded outlines and is hot to the touch.
With pressure in the region of this focus, a clearly defined nodule or cord-like seal can be felt.
If at this moment you try to make a movement that provokes discomfort, then you can determine a slight crunch - crepitus. It is associated with friction of the tendon against the inflamed and edematous walls of the synovial sheath.

Most often, tenosynovitis develops in the area of the joints bearing a constant functional load, which disrupts the healing process when the sheath of the ligaments is damaged.

Knee-joint

This articulation is surrounded by a large number of ligaments that have different functionalities. The lateral and posterior group of tendons do not have separate synovial sheaths, since they mainly perform a supporting function. Therefore, the development of the disease is more susceptible to those formations that carry a constant dynamic load:

Most often, there is a lesion of the "goose foot" - the area of \u200b\u200battachment of the semitendinosus, tailor and thin thigh muscles. This place is located on the inner surface of the joint, and, due to the small size of the ligaments, is often involved in the pathological process. In this case, there are sharp pains in the indicated area when walking or running, the appearance of a painful induration, an area of redness on the skin.
The tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle at the border with the upper pole of the patella is less commonly affected. The disease always has a traumatic origin, and is caused by excessive sports or household stress. In this case, there is edema above the patella, local pain when the leg is extended, and relative weakness of the quadriceps muscle.

Tenosynovitis of the knee rarely takes a chronic course, but it is capable of frequent relapses under the influence of these risk factors - injuries.

Ankle joint

The lesion in this localization has a mixed character - traumatic variants of the disease are more common, less often reactive. The occurrence of symptoms in the ankle joint almost always ends favorably, due to the good ability of the ligaments to recover. The most common injuries to the following tendons are:

In the first place in terms of occurrence is tenosynovitis in the region of the inner edge of the foot, where they pass to the sole of the flexor tendon of the fingers. Their damage often occurs when a person awkwardly stumbled or jumped. After that, pain appears in this area, aggravated by walking or active flexion of the fingers - other symptoms are usually absent.
Less commonly, there is a lesion of the extensor tendons passing in the synovial membranes at the border of the rear of the foot and ankle joint. They are located quite superficially, therefore, in addition to pain in their projection, when walking or standing up “on toes”, edema or local induration appears above them.
Rarely, tenosynovitis of the Achilles tendon is usually reactive or due to direct trauma. Since the ligament is accessible for inspection, inflammatory changes along its length immediately become noticeable. Pain occurs when walking, localized in the heel region.

If the pathological factor that led to the development of the disease is not eliminated, then the symptoms may become permanent, limiting the patient's activity.

nodular

A feature of inflammation that occurs on the tendons in the area of the hand is its frequent chronic course. Under the influence of the load, permanent damage to the synovial vagina occurs, leading to the development of irreversible degenerative changes in it. Therefore, it began to be called nodular tenosynovitis - an inflammatory process in combination with deformation of the ligaments and their membranes.

There are two separate groups of tendons on the hand - on the dorsal and palmar surfaces of the wrist joint. Their defeat is accompanied by the appearance of similar symptoms:

The development of pathological manifestations from the tendons on the inner surface is more often observed. Tenosynovitis is manifested by aching pain in the wrist area when the fingers are clenched into a fist, the occurrence of edema or painful compaction, redness there. With a long course of the disease, the nodules become dense to the touch - they can often be seen even with an external examination.
The defeat of the synovial sheaths on the back of the hand is also accompanied by pain when clenching the fist, and its intensification when extending the fingers. There is a painful to the touch and movable seal over the wrist joint, increasing in size with extension in it.

The nodules that occur during the chronic course of the disease are not eliminated over time - they are growths of connective tissue in the area of membrane defects.

Treatment

Help with tenosynovitis is mostly non-specific in nature - the patient can carry out most of the therapeutic measures at home. Almost all of them are based on creating an optimal motor mode for the affected ligament in order to ensure the full healing of its membranes. To do this, you need to perform the following activities:

During the first days after the onset of symptoms, it is required to create functional rest for the tendon. For this, absolutely any devices that allow artificially limiting mobility in the joint are suitable.
The easiest way is to make a bandage with an elastic bandage. Eight-shaped options are suitable for the area of \u200b\u200bthe wrist or ankle joint - they will perfectly limit both flexion and extension in the joint. For the knee, it is better to make a turtle bandage - it has good supporting properties.
Soft bandages or orthoses with adjustable stiffness are a good alternative to elastic bandages. But if they are not there, then it is not necessary to purchase them only to fix the joint for several days.
After about three days, you can start the program physiotherapy exercises- it will need to be performed daily for 30 minutes. Classes begin with the development of passive movements, and only after a few days you can gradually introduce active exercises.

In addition to these methods, pain medication and physical therapy are now being added to speed up the recovery of ligament function.

Medical

Artificial elimination of the inflammatory process allows the body to quickly start healing processes in the affected synovial vagina. Modern medicine can offer a wide range of drugs and techniques that suppress the pathological mechanisms of the disease:

The standard of care is the appointment of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) - in various forms of administration. With tenosynovitis, local remedies are mainly used - ointments or gels (Voltaren, Nise, Ketorol, Deep Relief). Only with severe inflammation is it possible to take pills situationally, which allows you to suppress the symptoms.
If NSAIDs are not enough to control the manifestations, then the issue of local administration of hormones is decided - injections of Diprospan. The injection is placed in the area of the affected synovial vagina, allowing you to reduce pain and swelling.
Additionally, local irritants are prescribed - Dimexide applications, Kapsikam or Finalgon creams. They have a distracting effect, and also improve blood circulation in the area of the pathological focus.
There are practically no restrictions on physiotherapy procedures - you can use any available method. To relieve pain, electrophoresis or phonophoresis with novocaine, paraffin or ozocerite applications are suitable. To improve recovery - laser or magnetotherapy, inductothermy, electrophoresis with enzymes.

The optimal combination of organizational and medical methods reduces the duration of the disease, allowing a person to quickly return to their usual activity.

Surgical

When the inflammation becomes purulent, or the pain syndrome cannot be eliminated by conservative methods, indications for surgery appear. It allows you to radically eliminate the existing pathological focus:

First, the altered synovial sheath is isolated from the soft tissues surrounding the joint.
Then it is opened, and all deformed or inflamed parts of the shell are excised.
The pathological focus is repeatedly washed to remove exudate, as well as areas of the affected membranes.
A tendon plasty is performed - nodules and growths of connective tissue are removed. Then it is again placed in its usual place, only without the shells surrounding it.

The loss of the synovial sheath still affects the work of the ligament in the future, although very slightly - with a good rehabilitation program, the changes can be corrected. And removing the source of chronic inflammation allows you to get rid of unpleasant symptoms that disrupt your usual activity.

With symptoms of reactive arthritis, it is necessary to quickly diagnose this ailment and immediately prescribe treatment. Experts estimate reactive arthritis as not the most severe, but common disease of the articular tissues.

There are many types of the disease and each has its own characteristics of manifestation and treatment, so it is important to timely identify the cause of the pathology and treat reactive arthritis based on its origin.

Damage mechanism

In fact, the disease is an inflammatory process caused by the activity of the body's own immune mechanisms. Articular tissues are affected by antibodies that begin to attack connective tissue cells.

Such antibodies are not found in healthy organisms, they arise against the background of diseases caused by infectious pathogens. In some pathologies, the risks of developing arthritis are quite high.

The connection of infectious pathogens with cells is due to the fact that in the structure of microorganisms and in the cells of the human body there are protein components similar in structure (this phenomenon has separate name- molecular mimicry). Thanks to these proteins, the immune system detects the microbe and attacks it. Therefore, joint cells can be subjected to erroneous attacks due to the similarity of protein structures. Reactive protein is one of the important indicators of the presence of the disease.

In addition, experts believe that an important role in this process is played by genetic propensity. There is some evidence that in the presence of a specific gene, the risks of developing arthritis after infectious diseases are much higher.

If rheumatoid arthritis often affects small joints, then reactive pathology affects large joints. The disease progresses when the cartilage tissue is affected by the following systemic diseases:

syringomyelia - pathology of the spinal cord;
leukemia;
diseases of the endocrine system;
dystrophic pathologies - they are more often diagnosed in older people due to age-related changes;
ailments accompanied by a violation of calcium metabolism in the body, this may be the cause of salt deposition on cartilage tissues (the most common form of the disease); in this case, pyrophosphate arthropathy develops, which can occur due to injuries of the hip, elbow, knee joints, infections, hypocalcemia.
idiopathic form - in this case, specialists cannot find out what exactly caused the pathological changes.

In addition, there is a type of psoriatic arthropathy - a form of hereditary pathology transmitted genetically. Such reactive arthropathy in children manifests itself at a very early age.

What causes pathology?

There are several classifications of the disease, one of which is based on the causes of reactive arthritis:

Viruses. Today, more than 30 pathogens of this type have been identified that can provoke the development of joint disease. Viral arthritis can occur against the background of rubella, type B hepatitis, herpes infection, enterovirus, etc.
Streptococci. They are the cause of post-streptococcal arthritis. In most cases, the disease is accompanied by infectious diseases of the nasopharynx caused by streptococcus, which is present in the healthy microflora of the body. The causative agent causes the following diseases - acute tonsillitis, pharyngitis, scarlet fever, inflammation of the bronchi, lungs and other pathological conditions.
Staphylococci. Another pathogen that can cause arthritis. Against the background of staphylococcal infections, a septic type of the disease develops.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Koch's wand). In this case we are talking about tuberculous arthritis, which occurs due to the extrapulmonary form of tuberculosis.
Gonococcus. The occurrence of gonococcal arthritis is associated with asymptomatic gonorrhea or gonococcal infections that develop in the throat or intestines.
Spirochetes.

Chronic erythema migrans or Lyme disease is an ailment that affects many body systems, including the musculoskeletal system. Such a pathology often passes into a chronic stage and is prone to recurrence.

In addition, there is a generalized division of the disease into:

urogenic reactive arthritis - associated with diseases of the genitourinary system;
postenterocolitic reactive arthritis - develops against the background of infections of the gastrointestinal tract, is more often diagnosed in men.

Children can also develop reactive arthritis, the reasons are related to the fact that with frequent illnesses, immunity is weakened, and it is not difficult for pathogens to penetrate tissues and systems. Most often, the causative agents in this case are chlamydia or bacteria that cause enterocolitis. In this case, reactive arthritis of the hip joint can develop, which affects children under 14 years of age and young people under 30 years of age.

Classification of the disease according to ICD-10

If we consider the classification of the disease according to ICD - 10, then the main types of reactive arthritis are the following:

arthropathies - secondary lesions of articular tissues that develop against the background of other diseases and pathologies:
arthropathy accompanying intestinal bypass;
postdysenteric lesion - a pathology in which changes relate to both connective tissues and musculoskeletal;
post-immunization lesion - the disease affects the muscles and bones; associated with a recent immunization;
Reiter's disease - additional damage to the genitourinary organs and conjunctiva occurs;
other types of reactive arthritis;
reactive arthropathy, unspecified - in the case of similar joint damage as reactive arthritis, there are still a number of gaps that are gradually being elucidated.

Reactive arthritis can take several forms:

acute - the disease lasts less than 2 months;
protracted - the duration is from several months to a year;
chronic reactive arthritis - lasts longer than 12 months;
recurrent form - the disease worsens and the interval between exacerbations is less than six months.

How does the disease manifest itself?

The initial stage of the disease usually proceeds in an acute form. Most often, primary symptoms occur 12 to 14 days after infection. If reactive arthritis develops, initial symptoms may include:

An increase in temperature in the area of the affected joint. This symptom can be determined by placing a palm on the painful area.
Swelling of the joints - this is how reactive arthritis of the knee, ankle, elbows, as well as the hands and feet manifests itself. In some cases, the swelling extends beyond the lesion.
The appearance of pain syndrome. Soreness occurs when moving the affected limbs - upper or lower. The pains can be different: dull, twisting or aching, they are more intense during the daytime and subside somewhat at night. This symptom can be detected during palpation of the affected areas.

Reactive arthritis is accompanied by stiffness that makes it difficult for the patient to move, as in rheumatoid arthritis. This pathological condition is associated with impaired outflow of articular exudate - synovia.

Patients learn what articular syndrome is - pain, asymmetric oligoarthritis, damage to articular tissues, swelling and others.

In addition, characteristic symptoms appear depending on the infectious disease. Urogenital infections are accompanied by urethritis, cervicitis. The joint space expands, periarticular swelling of the soft tissue occurs.

Also, reactive arthritis is characterized by inflammation of the eyes, skin, conjunctiva, mucous surfaces of the oral cavity, etc. Already in the initial stages of the disease, the patient has symptoms of sacroiliitis (vertebral lesions), diseases of the kidneys, heart muscle, disturbances in the activity of the nervous system.

A person suffering from reactive arthritis becomes lethargic, feels constant fatigue, and performance decreases. Often the disease is accompanied by a sharp weight loss. There may be a feverish state - chills or fever.

4-5 weeks after infection, large joints are affected, which bear the maximum load - reactive arthritis of the ankle, hip, knee, foot and big toes also suffer.

Diagnosis of pathology

Joint diseases require a serious approach and a mandatory thorough examination. Diagnostics includes the following:

In addition, it is important to examine the affected joints, to identify the existing symptoms. A number of tests are prescribed to identify the type of pathogen: scraping from the urethra, detection of antibodies in the blood, PCR analysis - polymerase chain reaction.

To make a diagnosis, the attending physician must obtain at least 4 confirmations of the criteria for reactive arthritis.

What therapy is used

As already noted, such a pathology of the joints is prone to relapse and transition to chronic form. However, if timely attention is paid to the symptoms of reactive arthritis, treatment and prognosis are quite favorable. Experts warn that you should not self-medicate and brush off unpleasant signs of illness.

The doctor knows how to treat reactive arthritis, usually therapy has two directions - getting rid of the pathogen and eliminating the symptoms of articular syndrome.

Of the antibacterial drugs, agents with a wide spectrum of action can be prescribed:

Azithromycin, Azithromycin monohydrate;
Doskicycline (analogue of Unidox Solutab);
Clarithromycin (analogues: Clarithrosin, Klarbakt);
Amoxiclav (analogues: Bactoclav, Liklav, Flemoclav C);
Erythromycin (analogues: Ermiced, Erifluid).

Since antibiotics have a number of serious side effects, it is recommended to take them only under the supervision of a physician and according to an individually prescribed scheme. It is worth noting that antibiotic therapy eliminates the infection, but in no way eliminates the symptoms of arthritis.

With the same syndrome, they fight with medication, but using drugs from other groups:

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs - drugs based on Diclofenac (Diclovit, Diclofen, Voltaren, etc.), Ibuprofen (Ibuklin, Nurofen).
Steroid hormonal drugs, corticosteroid drugs. Glucocorticoids - Cortisol, Prednisolone, Dexamethasone and others.

Usually assigned as complex application- ointments and gels for external application to the affected joints and capsules or tablets for oral administration. Such drugs slow down the development of pathological processes, affecting biochemical reactions.

Hormonal drugs also have risks of developing side effects and many contraindications, therefore they are prescribed exclusively by a doctor. Although their effect on immunity is a decrease in the functions of this system, experts evaluate it as positive quality in this case.

In addition, to stop immune attacks on joint cells, a rheumatologist can prescribe immunosuppressive drugs, such as methotrexate, which prevent cells from growing and inhibit the body's immune functions. Naturally, the weakening of the immune system is a rather serious condition, and the body in this case is defenseless against pathogenic bacteria and viruses.

If reactive arthritis is not treated, a number of serious complications are possible:

if uveitis occurs, then cataracts develop without treatment;
destruction of articular tissues can lead to the formation of erosions, which most often appear on the feet and lead to their deformation changes;
12 months of development of arthritis is enough for it to turn into a chronic disease.

Like any form of illness, reactive disease requires long-term therapy, although unlike other types of arthritis in this case, it is possible to completely get rid of pathological changes. Human joints are an important component, without their normal functioning, a person is limited in movement, suffers from severe pain and risks getting even more serious health problems. Is this not enough to take better care of the joints and treat them in a timely manner?

Arthrosis of the elbow joint 1 and 2 degrees: symptoms and treatment of the elbow

High loads on the limbs during sports or when performing any work adversely affect the condition of the articular cartilage. Unfortunately, today doctors diagnose arthrosis of the elbow joint of the 2nd degree not only in elderly patients.

Among patients, there are often people under forty years of age who have an unstable condition and rapid progression of the clinical picture.

After reading this material, the reader will receive answers to questions regarding the causes of arthrosis, the main symptoms of the disease and modern methods of treatment.

Why does deforming arthrosis of the elbow occur?

More recently, it was believed that deforming arthrosis is an age-related pathology and is caused solely by a deterioration in the blood supply to the tendon and cartilage tissues of the joint, which develops as a result of aging of the body.

But recent scientific research has shown that deforming arthrosis of the elbow can also develop in the younger generation. This happens because today many people lead a sedentary lifestyle, and in combination with endocrine disorders, physical inactivity causes a malfunction in the mechanism of innervation.

In other words, any person who systematically violates the diet, has a sedentary job, and ignores physical education can get sick with arthrosis of the elbow joint. The pathology of the elbow joint is directly related to carpal tunnel syndrome and cervical osteochondrosis.

All three conditions are accompanied by a deterioration in the innervation of muscle tissue and tendons, a decrease in the production of fluid that nourishes the cartilage tissue. As a result, the cartilage becomes dehydrated and loses its elasticity and firmness. Such conditions are very favorable for the pathogenic effect on the heads of the joints.

But for the development of deforming arthrosis of the elbow joint, there are other provoking factors:

the presence in a person of ulnar epicondylitis, which is called "tennis elbow";
overweight, combined with edematous syndromes of various origins (hormonal, nephrotic, cardiac, endocrine);
regular injuries of the musculoskeletal system, it can be both minor blows and serious dislocations, sprains and fractures;
rheumatism and connective tissue diseases;
violation of the drinking balance (normally a person should drink at least two liters of clean water per day);
metabolic disease;
the presence in the patient's body of chronic foci of infections, these include neglected carious cavities of the teeth, chronic gastritis, cholecystitis and tonsillitis;
lack of calcium and other minerals in the diet;
pathology of the thyroid and pancreas;
decrease in immunity.

For the speedy restoration of the natural state of the articular tissues, it is necessary to immediately eliminate possible reasons pathology.

That is why in the initial diagnosis it is extremely important to determine the likely pathogenic factors.

Symptoms of osteoarthritis of the elbow of the initial stages

In order to be able to start treatment of arthrosis of the elbow joint as early as possible, it is necessary to diagnose it in a timely manner. That is why when the first symptoms of the disease appear, a visit to the doctor should follow immediately. To do this, a person must know the characteristic signs of elbow arthrosis.

Deforming arthrosis of the elbow joint of the first degree is expressed only by short-term pain in the corresponding area after exercise. External symptoms of pathology may be completely absent.

During the initial examination, the doctor notes a slight decrease in muscle tone and difficulties that arise when trying to move the forearm. The pain increases with flexion, extension or abduction of the limb, that is, at those moments when the elbow joint is involved.

In order to exclude rheumatoid arthritis, bursitis, epicondylitis, tunnel syndrome of the elbow joint, osteochondrosis and sprain, differential diagnosis is carried out at this stage.

Any of these diseases can provoke radiating pain in the elbow. The doctor prescribes the passage of x-rays, and if necessary - computed tomography and arthroscopy. Treatment of the disease is carried out by an orthopedist, chiropractor or surgeon.

Deforming arthrosis of the second degree has a more pronounced clinical picture:

The pain bothers almost constantly and intensifies in the evening.
When moving, crepitus (crunching) is noted, which indicates the beginning of a destructive process in the bone tissue.
Around the elbow joint, nodular formations of a dense consistency can be observed.

In these two stages, conservative treatment can be very successful and even complete recovery is possible. But therapy should be started as soon as possible.

Treatment of arthrosis of the elbow joint

The modern pharmaceutical market does not have an arsenal of effective drugs for the treatment of pathologies of the musculoskeletal system. Therefore, treatment is based on expectant management, during which it is necessary to eliminate the symptoms of arthrosis.

Therapeutic activities include:

The appointment of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (Baralgin, Indamethacin, Ortofen, Diclofenac), which relieve the inflammatory process, eliminate pain. The patient receives significant relief, but a complete cure does not occur.
Vitamin therapy, in which preference is given to nicotinic acid, cyanocobalamin, thiamine bromide, pyridoxine hydrochloride. These drugs improve metabolic processes in the affected tissues, improve blood circulation and often lead to a significant improvement in the general condition of the patient. But the effect of these drugs is short-lived.
Corticosteroids are hormonal drugs that suppress autoimmune processes in the body. They are prescribed for intense pain. But corticosteroids have a serious negative effect - they can destroy bone tissue.
Chondo protectors are fairly new medicines. These medicines have not yet been fully studied, therefore they have numerous opponents. With intra-articular injections, chondoprotectors provide good result, but there is an opinion that oral administration and intramuscular administration do not give the expected effect.
The pain that invariably accompanies deforming arthrosis of the elbow can be stopped with the help of novocaine and lidocaine blockade. But such methods are emergency and are not therapeutic.
The treatment of arthrosis requires physiotherapeutic measures, massage sessions and the daily implementation of a complex of recreational exercises.

Treatment of arthrosis of the elbow joint of the first degree by manual therapy is highly effective. But success is only guaranteed if action is taken in a timely manner.

The manual therapist conducts the initial examination of the patient with special care. Having studied the medical history, the doctor clarifies the diagnosis and establishes the degree of destruction of the articular tissues. Only after a full acquaintance with the situation, the doctor develops an individual method of treatment.

Treatment by manual therapy ensures the normalization of the location of the bone heads in the joint cavity. Due to acupuncture effect on biologically active points human body osteopath without any side effects eliminates pain syndrome.

After pain relief and overcoming the acute period, a long recovery course begins, in which it is mainly used physiotherapy and massage. The purpose of these activities is the natural restoration of articular tissues.

During activity during exercise, blood flow in the muscles increases, as a result of which the cartilage tissue receives full diffuse nutrition. Massage ensures the consolidation of the effect obtained and eliminates excess tension in the muscles.

These methods are complemented practical advice doctors who are aimed at organizing the right working and sleeping place, adjusting the diet. Comprehensive treatment of arthrosis provides an improvement in the general condition of the patient, an increase in his working capacity and a return to the usual rhythm of life.

Elbow in the world

Elbow lengths by country, tab. 1848

As a measure, the cubit is known among many peoples of the world. So, among the Egyptians, the cubit was 45 cm, among the Greeks - 46.3 cm, among the Romans - 44.4 cm, ancient Eastern - about 45 cm, Persian (royal) - about 53.3 cm, pigon (= 20 fingers) - approx. . 38.5 cm, Samos cubit - 28 fingers 518 mm. The Egyptian "small cubit" was 44.4 cm, the "royal cubit" was 52.5. The elbow was used in both African and Asian countries. So, the elbow in Morocco is 51.7 cm and 53.3, in Tunisia - 47.3, in Calcutta - 44.7, in Sri Lanka - up to 47 cm. The “double elbow of King Lagash Gudea” is also known (Sumer, XXII century BC), equal to 99-99.6 cm.

In Europe, early XIX century in different lands used elbows of different lengths. According to

Measure cubits in millimeters
		Millimeter
Viennese	elbow contains	779,9224
Prague	…	593,9600
Moravian	…	740,6683
Silesian	…	579,0104
Trieste	for wool...	676,7489
Trieste	for silk...	642,1444
Tyrolean	…	804,1356
Venetian	…	636,8207
amsterdam	…	690,2838
Augsburg	big …	609,5250
Augsburg	small …	592,3808
Berlin	…	666,8231
Brussels	big …	694,3443
Brussels	small …	684,4188
Cologne	big …	649,7955
Cologne	small …	574,1087
Dresden	…	566,2132
frankfurt	…	539,5945
Leipzig	…	565,3110
Nuremberg	…	669,6040
Swedish	…	593,7344

Elbow in Russia

A cubit of 54 cm was equal to three spans of 18 cm. Small deviations from the average size of the measure are quite natural; taking into account the unconditional approximation of early units of measurement, they can be ignored. On the other hand, this cubit contains exactly two "spans with a somersault", equal to 27 cm.

From the 16th century, the cubit was gradually replaced by the arshin. In particular, in the textbook Franz Mozhnik (Franz Mozhnik) 1848 ed. German Elle and Polish. Łokieć put in line with the Russian arshin.

Literature

// Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
Franz Mozhnik: Lehrbuch des gesammten Rechnens für die vierte Classe der Hauptschulen in den k.k. Staaten. Im Verlage der k.k. Schulbücher Verschleiss-Administration bey St. Anna in der Johannisgasse, Wien 1848.
Karpushina N. Man-made measurements, Mathematics at school, No. 7, 2008.
Sedova L.N. Issues of Russian metrology in the classroom and extracurricular activities in mathematics. Yaroslavl 1999; .

Notes

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .

See what "Elbow (unit of length)" is in other dictionaries:

Elbow is a unit of length measurement that has no specific meaning and approximately corresponds to the distance from the elbow joint to the end of the outstretched middle finger. Contents 1 Elbow in the world 2 Elbow in Russia 3 Literature ... Wikipedia

Contents 1 Distance units 1.1 Metric system 1.2 British / American system ... Wikipedia Isfahan cubit

Zira (Arabic elbow, gas, zar, arash) is a measure of length in Muslim countries that does not have a specific meaning and approximately corresponds to the size of the elbow. Known since the Middle Ages. AT Central Asia the term gas was more often used to denote an elbow ... Wikipedia

Zira (Arabic elbow, gas, zar, arash) is a measure of length in Muslim countries that does not have a specific meaning and approximately corresponds to the size of the elbow. Known since the Middle Ages. In Central Asia, the term gas was more often used to denote an elbow ... Wikipedia

Text: Tatyana Filimonova

"Sightseeing tours are not about us," says Natalia Doroshenko, CEO of travel company Sunhunters. Sunhunters (English "hunters for the sun") - so the founders of the company call themselves and those who went with them on a journey around the "earth circle". Two years ago, after returning from another trip with friends, Natalia decided to abandon the boring forms of recreation. She did not go to travel agencies in search of "creativity", but decided to open her own company Sunhunters, specializing in round-the-world travel. At the same time, the company's approach to circumnavigating the world is unusual - in Sunhunters, the entire "circle of the earth" was divided into 65 segments, overcoming each takes two weeks.

Natalia's fatigue from the traditional leisure industry is understandable - out of her 27 years, she has worked in conventional tourism for nine. To create a company, she needed 20 million rubles. The investors of the project were, according to Natalia, some "wealthy enthusiastic travelers." Deciding that the majority of potential customers on a non-stop trip around the globe not enough free time, Natalia divided the circumnavigation into segments. The routes are divided into two groups: "northern circumnavigation" and "southern circumnavigation", which pass respectively in the Northern and southern hemispheres. Each of the circumnavigations consists of approximately 30 segments.

The first travelers set off from Lisbon to Casablanca and around India just this winter. Now 15-20 people are already in the company's mini-circumnavigations or are going on their way. Since the winter of 2008, when the "hunters for the sun" began to sell their services, 50 tours have already been held. Estimated SF, the company's revenue for the first half of 2008 exceeded 1 million euros.

The product offered by Sunhunters is designed for wealthy people. For example, a trip on a yacht around Europe will cost 8,000 euros per person. For this money, the client receives not only housing (during stops, tourists are accommodated in five-star hotels), but also food and transport services. True, air tickets are not included in the cost of the trip - they must be bought separately. Any group of travelers is accompanied by full-time guides, drivers and skippers of Sunhunters yachts. Tour participants are usually either a family of two to three people, or a group of friends or colleagues (five to six people). However, you can go on a trip alone.

Each tour introduces the tourist to the culture and nature of one of the largest regions of the planet. The routes are designed so that "modern Magellan" can see all the exotics of a certain part of the world. "For example, in the upcoming Chile-Argentina tour in January 2009, in two weeks we will cross the South American continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, we will see everything that this continent is unique in: pampas, giant glaciers, canyons with lunar landscapes, we will cross the Andes twice", Doroshenko says. Travelers are sent to the starting point of the tour by plane, and then tourists move by sea or by road. Intra-Russian tours, for example, a trip around Baikal or Altai, are also part of the round-the-world trip.

Natalia Doroshenko hopes that the flow of those wishing to travel around the Earth "in pieces" will not dry up in the future, because even current clients, if they take vacations twice a year, will need at least 15 years to go "the whole circle of the earth."

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