Eastern Europe in the late XX - early XXI centuries. Countries of Central and Eastern Europe in the second half of the 20th - early 21st centuries Eastern Europe in the late 20th and early 21st centuries

12.09.2020

Further, the interaction of peoples, as an integral factor, has increased many times over. A new world order based on the unity of rights and duties is being formed. In doing so, attention should be paid to the following.

The development of science, engineering and technology has reached a new level.
The transition of production to new type, the socio-political results of which are the property of not only one country.
Global economic ties deepened.
Global ties arose that covered the main spheres of life of peoples and states.

All this led to the renewal of the picture of the Society.

Globalization

The modern world gives the impression of a pluralistic one, which sharply distinguishes it from the world order of the Cold War period. In the modern multipolar world, there are several main centers of international politics: Europe, China, the Asia-Pacific Region (APR), South Asia (India), Latin America (Brazil) and the USA.

Western Europe

After many years of Europe being in the shadow of the United States, its powerful rise began. At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. EU countries, with a population of approximately 350 million people, produce goods and services worth just over $5.5 trillion a year, that is, more than in the United States (just under $5.5 trillion, 270 million people). These achievements became the basis for the revival of Europe as a special political and spiritual force, the formation of a new European community. This gave the Europeans a reason to reconsider their positions in relation to the United States: to move from relations of the “younger brother-big brother” type to an equal partnership.

Eastern Europe

Russia

In addition to Europe, a huge impact on the fate modern world provided by the Asia-Pacific region. The dynamically developing Asia-Pacific covers a triangle from the Russian Far East and Korea in the northeast to Australia in the south and Pakistan in the west. Approximately half of humanity lives in this triangle and there are such dynamic countries as Japan, China, Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Malaysia, Singapore.

If in 1960 the total GNP of the countries of this region reached 7.8% of the world GNP, then by 1982 it had doubled, and by the beginning of the 21st century. amounted to about 20% of the world gross national product (that is, it became approximately equal to the share of the EU or the USA). The Asia-Pacific region has become one of the main centers of world economic power, which raises the question of expanding its political influence. The rise in Southeast Asia was largely associated with the policy of protectionism and the protection of the national economy.

China

In the Asia-Pacific region, the incredibly dynamic growth of China draws attention: in fact, the GNP of the so-called “Greater China”, which includes China proper, Taiwan, and Singapore, exceeds Japan and is practically approaching the GNP of the United States.

The influence of the Chinese is not limited to "Greater China" - it partly extends to the countries of the Chinese diaspora in Asia; in the countries of Southeast Asia, they constitute the most dynamic element. For example, by the end of the 20th century The Chinese made up 1% of the population of the Philippines, but controlled 35% of the sales of local firms. In Indonesia, the Chinese accounted for 2-3% of the total population, but about 70% of local private capital was concentrated in their hands. The entire East Asian economy outside of Japan and Korea is, in fact, the Chinese economy. An agreement between the PRC and the countries of Southeast Asia on the creation of a common economic zone has recently entered into force.

Near East

In Latin America, liberal economic policy in the 1980s-1990s. led to economic growth. At the same time, the use of harsh liberal recipes for modernization in the future, which did not provide for sufficient social guarantees during market reforms, increased social instability, contributed to relative stagnation and an increase in the external debt of Latin American countries.

It is precisely the reaction to this stagnation that explains the fact that in Venezuela in 1999 the “Bolivarians” headed by Colonel Hugo Chavez won the elections. In the same year, a constitution was adopted in a referendum, guaranteeing the population a large number of social rights, including the right to work and rest, free education and medical care. Since January 2000, the country has acquired a new name - the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. Along with the traditional branches of power, two more are formed here - electoral and civil. Hugo Chavez, using the support of a significant part of the population, chose a strict anti-American course.

By the 60-70s of the 19th century, the period of national liberation movements and revolutions, which had trembled for several decades, was ending in Europe. Despite the defeat of some speeches, a wave of struggle for the elimination of feudal remnants and national independence is sweeping throughout Europe. The peace that came to the countries of Europe gave impetus to their political and social development. The bourgeoisie occupied a special place in state and public life. The beginning of industrialization ensured a way out of the economic crisis and the demographic growth of the population of Europe.

Political development countries of Europe in the late 19th - early 20th century§

By the 70s. the national liberation movements and revolutions in Western Europe are coming to an end. Bourgeois national states took shape here in the form of constitutional monarchies or republics. The evolutionary nature of socio-political development began to prevail. A parliamentary system was formed on a two- or multi-party basis. The parliamentary tribune made it possible to express the demands and demands of the general population. It was asserted civil society with his knowledge of the principles of law and management, autonomy of thinking.

In political life, the role of the industrial bourgeoisie, which was interested in the patronage of a strong state in order to protect its property, increased. It put the state apparatus, the parties, the unions of entrepreneurs, and other auxiliary organizations at the service.

England had a parliamentary monarchy and a two-party system. Liberals and conservatives alternated in power. The executive power and its administrative apparatus, represented by the cabinet of ministers, were strengthened.

In France, in 1870, a republican system was established, but the positions of the monarchists were still strong. The French bourgeoisie, impelled by the democratic strata, waged a long struggle to consolidate the republic. In 1875, the constitution of the Third Republic was adopted, providing for the creation of a bicameral parliament. The head of state was the President, who was elected by the Houses of Parliament. He had great powers. In the struggle for the establishment of the republic and its democratization, France experienced at the end of the 19th century. several major political crises.

In Germany, in 1871, a constitution was adopted, according to which the executive and partially legislative power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor. The highest representative body was the Reichstag, elected on the basis of universal suffrage. Laws adopted by the lower house of parliament were subject to approval by the upper house and the emperor. He appointed a chancellor, a union minister responsible only to him. In Prussia, the three-class electoral law was preserved in elections to the local Landtag.

In Italy, a bourgeois monarchy was established. Legislative power belonged to the king and parliament, which consisted of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The king appointed and dismissed the highest officials of the state, had the right to dissolve parliament. An extremely narrow stratum of the propertied classes received the right to vote.

The aggravation of social contradictions and the growth of the mass movement forced the ruling circles of many Western countries to democratize the political system, mainly along the path of expanding voting rights. In England, the suffrage reform of the 80s. increased the number of voters in parliament at the expense of the petty bourgeoisie and the top of the working class. The suffrage reform in Italy (1882) gave the right to vote to medium and even small proprietors. In Germany, a persistent struggle was waged by democratic forces for the abolition of the three-class electoral system in Prussia.

At the beginning of the XX century. Politicians of a new formation came to power, realizing the need to apply new methods of governing society. They embarked on reforms in social relations. Bourgeois reformism manifested itself mainly on the basis of liberalism, which seized the leading positions during the period of the establishment of industrial society. Political leaders of liberal orientation in France (E. Combe, radicals), Italy (J. Giolitti), England (D. Lloyd George) carried out some reforms in order to reduce social tension. In Germany, where liberalism was weaker but the need for reform was felt, reformism was implemented on a conservative basis. His guide was the Imperial Chancellor B. von Bülow.

The social structure of European countries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries§

In the course of industrialization, the social structure of European society changed. As a result of the combination of industrial and banking activities, a financial aristocracy was formed, which included a narrow circle of individuals and families. She constituted the elite of Western society.

The symbol of power in France was the "200 families" who controlled the French Bank. In the psychology of the financial aristocracy, extreme individualism and a sense of community with their own kind were intertwined.

Representatives of the old aristocracy played a prominent role in society. In England, Germany, Italy and even in France, where the break with the feudal past occurred most radically, they were given access to power and business. People from the bourgeois strata sought to intermarry with them.

The industrial age created the conditions for entrepreneurship. A fairly large middle class arose, uniting the bourgeoisie, bureaucracy, and the intelligentsia. They were well-educated, hard-working people with a practical mind. For them, an interest in enrichment was combined with an interest in a business in which they often saw the meaning of their lives.
The industrial revolution led to the formation of a working class deprived of the means of production. Wage workers became the main producers of material goods.

The use of machines created conditions for the use of the labor of women and children. The wage gap between skilled and unskilled workers was quite high.
Agriculture in most Western countries employed a significant portion of the working population. In England, the peasantry practically disappeared. It was replaced by tenants and agricultural workers. In other countries, the position of wealthy peasants and farmers strengthened, but there were still many small peasants, especially in France.

Demographic processes of European countries in the late 19th - early 20th century§

Industrialization, the growth of agricultural productivity created the material prerequisites for meeting people's needs for food, increasing the population. There was a "first population explosion". The population of Europe in the 19th century doubled and by 1900 amounted to more than 400 million people. The rate of population growth increased especially sharply in the second half of the 19th century, which is explained by a decrease in mortality with a high birth rate. Advances in medicine in the fight against epidemics, improved healthcare contributed to a decrease in mortality. In the last third of the XIX century. the highest population growth was observed due to low mortality for that time and high birth rate. But at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. a sharp downward trend in the birth rate. In many countries - England, Germany, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, the Scandinavian states - a demographic revolution began, which meant a decrease in fertility and mortality, an increase in life expectancy.

The demographic revolution began in France, which happened a century earlier, at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. It is directly related to the transformations caused by the French Revolution and the consequences of the Napoleonic Wars.

For countries Western Europe late marriages are typical. Average age marriage in Western countries was at the end of the XIX century. 25 - 28 years old. A new type of family was taking shape, in which the practice of conscious birth control was observed, which was caused by social and cultural progress. The birth rate was lower among the propertied classes, the middle strata, higher among unskilled workers, in poor families.

A characteristic feature of family and marriage relations has been an increase in the instability of marriages. However, divorce in the XIX century. It was possible only after a long and expensive procedure, so only representatives of wealthy strata could achieve a divorce. Marriage in most cases was terminated at the initiative of men. With the growth of their economic independence, women have become more proactive in the dissolution of marriage.

Migration of the population of European countries in the late 19th - early 20th century§

19th century is considered the century of mass migration movements. Migrations or movements of people were caused by many reasons - economic, political, national, religious.

The riches of the bowels of the New World, the expanses of land required labor. Legislation of the USA, Latin American countries patronized immigration. Recruitment centers were organized, a wide network of incentive societies for resettlement. In 1800 - 1900. 28 million people emigrated from Europe to America. The first place in terms of the number of migrants was occupied by England, from which about 13 million people left over the years. The main significance of the migration movements was that they accelerated economic development countries that needed an influx of labor, led to the colonization of sparsely populated areas, contributed to the involvement of various regions in the world economy. At the same time, at the beginning of the 20th century. significantly reduced migration from England and Germany, but significantly increased from less developed countries - Italy, the Balkan countries, Eastern Europe. Migration from developed countries to economically backward countries increased in order to subjugate the latter. Migration from France to North Africa was of a similar nature. On the whole, European migration led to the settlement of many regions of North and Latin America, Australia, and Oceania.

Urbanization of European countries in the late 19th - early 20th century§

The rapid development of industrial production entailed urbanization, which means the concentration of population and economic life in cities, the growth of urban residents at the expense of the reduction of rural ones.

The process of urbanization began primarily in England and was closely associated with industrialization. In the middle of the XIX century. more than half of the population of England lived in cities at the beginning of the 20th century. - 2/3 of its total number. London, together with the suburbs, had more than 7 million inhabitants.
The influx of the rural population into the cities expanded the reserve army of labor, created new masses of consumers, which stimulated the development of mass production. Between 1880 and 1914, 60 million Europeans moved from the countryside to the cities. In 1900, there were 13 millionaire cities.

Urbanization developed spontaneously, uncontrollably, which led to the spread of various social diseases - crime, alcoholism, prostitution, and mental disorders. The state of the urban environment was deteriorating, which led to an ecological crisis. Therefore, the city authorities began to pay more attention to the process of urban improvement. The development of medical knowledge made it possible to identify the causative agents of epidemics, the breeding grounds of which were poor neighborhoods, where the population lived crowded, in unsanitary conditions. In the fight against epidemics, personal hygiene, air and habitat purification were required.
The layout of cities also began to change. New wide streets - avenues - were laid through the old center and suburbs. The need for the construction of public buildings has increased - department stores, libraries, exhibition halls, sports facilities. There have been changes in construction equipment, new Construction Materials- metal, glass, concrete.

Enlightenment of European countries in the late 19th - early 20th century§

Technological progress and the transition to machine production associated with it required competent, skilled workers. Therefore, in Western countries in the second half of the XIX century. introduces universal primary education. The number of literate men by the end of the century reached 75 - 90% of the total. In a public school, children were taught to read and write, they were given elementary knowledge of arithmetic, they were introduced to history and religious dogmas. A characteristic of the school learning process was the memorization of a certain minimum of knowledge.

Children of wealthy parents had the opportunity to get a secondary education. With the development of industrial production, along with humanitarian gymnasiums, technical and real schools appeared, in which great attention devoted to the study of mathematics, physics, chemistry. The secondary school was inaccessible to the bulk of the children, both because it was paid, and because the children of the poor had to earn a living from an early age.
After graduation high school education could be continued at higher educational institutions and get the profession of engineer, agronomist, teacher, doctor. Higher education everywhere was paid. Women were denied access to universities.

Life of European countries in the late 19th - early 20th century§

The quality of nutrition of Western Europeans has generally improved, as the percentage of meat and fruits in the diet has increased. At the same time, the use of alcohol and tobacco increased. In Germany, the annual share of tobacco per person increased from 1 to 1.6 kg in 1870-1913. Coffee became the drink of choice, although the poor were often satisfied with its surrogate.

Wealthy families lived in palaces, mansions, apartments furnished with expensive furniture. The interior changed along with changes in artistic styles. In the Napoleonic era, furniture was distinguished by heavy weight, clear geometrism of the oval, circle, and rectangle. The atmosphere of the house was cold-official, ceremonial. In the middle of the century, furniture became lighter and pretentious, upholstered in plush and velvet (second Rococo). The Art Nouveau style of the end of the century brought sluggish outlines, streamlined shapes, and asymmetry. Luxury and well-being were emphasized - dark colors in the interiors, soft quilted furniture, heavy drapery.

Fashion in clothes dictated by the court gave way to bourgeois fashion. The men's suit as a whole has acquired uniformity, efficiency, practicality. It has become more strictly divided according to its functional purpose. Blazers and cardigans have become work clothes, tailcoat - in front. At the end of the XIX century. tuxedos (England) came into fashion, which were worn when going to a men's club, theater, restaurant.

The woman's clothes were very diverse and were designed to emphasize the wealth and prosperity of her husband. At the beginning of the XIX century. the women's dress resembled a tunic, the belt was under the breast itself, at the bottom of the skirt and on the sleeves there were many flounces. Women's attire was complemented by expensive jewelry. In the middle of the century, in women's fashion, where France set the tone, the style of the Second Empire was established - the clothes were extremely pretentious. The crinoline came into use, which was a shirred domed skirt with many petticoats or steel hoops. Golden lace was especially fashionable in the decoration. At the end of the XIX century. with the advent of new vehicles (car, tram), the spread of sports exercises women's clothing simplified. An important factor that influenced the change in dress was the desire of women for equality, their struggle for education. There were female employees, doctors, teachers. A skirt with a blouse, a suit consisting of a skirt and a jacket, a coat came into use.

Ordinary people wore what did not interfere with work and what could be afforded in abundance. The folk costume was supplanted by the pan-European urban type, although many of its details were preserved (ornament, decorations).

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Causes of the First World War. Side Plans

The following major wars preceded World War I:

Spanish-American (1898), the US imperialists sought to seize economically and strategically important islands in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and in the Caribbean, owned by Spain. The outcome of this war was in favor of the United States, which predetermined the immeasurable economic and military superiority of the states over feudal Spain.

Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902). The reason for the war was the intention of England to seize two small Boer republics in southern Africa (now South Africa), on whose territory there were rich deposits of gold and diamonds. In 1900, England sent an army of 200,000 against the Boers (subsequently bringing its number to 450,000). Defending their independence, the Boers created an army of 60 thousand people on a militia basis. However, despite the partisan movement, they were forced to stop resistance in 1902.

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). Its cause was the clash of interests between tsarist Russia and imperialist Japan, which was striving to turn Korea, Manchuria and other regions of the Far East into its colonies. Russia had 300 thousand soldiers and 57 warships. With the help of the USA and England, Japan created a large army - 370 thousand people and 73 warships. Russia underestimated the strength of the enemy and poorly prepared for war. Military failures and the growth of the revolution within the country forced the tsarist government to accept the terms of peace dictated by Japan.

First World War, which began on August 1, 1914 and lasted until November 11, 1918, arose as a result of the intensification of the political and economic struggle between the largest imperialist countries of Europe. This led to the division of the world into two hostile camps and the emergence of two groups: the Triple Alliance - Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy and the Triple Entente or Entente - England, France and Russia.

The war between the major European powers was beneficial to the US imperialists, since as a result of this struggle favorable conditions developed for further development American expansion, especially in Latin America and on Far East. The American monopolies were betting on the maximum benefit from the war in Europe.

Due to the fact that the war for the redivision of the world affected the interests of all imperialist countries, most of the world's states gradually became involved in it. The war became a world war, both in its political goals and in scale.

In preparing for war, the imperialists saw in it:

First, a means of resolving external contradictions;

Secondly, a means that could help them cope with the growing discontent of the population of their own countries and suppress the growing revolutionary movement.

By its nature, the war of 1914-1918. was imperialistic, predatory, unjust on both sides. It was a war for who had more to rob and oppress.

The military action plans of the main participants in the war did not sufficiently take into account the increased role of economic and moral factors and were designed to conduct battles at the expense of mobilization reserves accumulated in peacetime. It was believed that the war would be short-lived.

Characteristic in this regard was Germany's strategic plan (the Schlieffen plan), which outlined the rapid defeat of the obviously superior forces of the Entente through major offensive operations, first against the armies of France and England, and then against Russia. This circumstance determined the choice of the strategic form of the offensive - a flank bypass and encirclement of the main enemy forces. In order to bypass and encircle the French army, it was planned to carry out a flank maneuver through Belgium, bypassing the main forces of the French army from the north. In the east, it was planned to deploy 15-16 divisions, which were supposed to cover East Prussia from a possible invasion of Russian troops.

Although the Schlieffen plan had such positive aspects as taking into account the factors of surprise and the role of strategic initiative, right choice the direction of the main attack and the concentration of forces in the decisive direction, on the whole it turned out to be vicious, since it incorrectly assessed the capabilities of its troops and the enemy.

The Austro-Hungarian war plan was strongly influenced by the demand of the German General Staff to tie down the Russian armies during the period of Germany's main attack on France. In this regard, the Austro-Hungarian General Staff planned active actions simultaneously against Russia, Serbia and Montenegro. It was planned to deliver the main blow from Galicia to the east and northeast. The Austro-Hungarian plan was built without any real consideration of the economic and moral possibilities of the country. The availability of forces did not correspond to the tasks set.

The French plan, although it provided for active offensive operations, was of a passive and expectant nature, since the initial actions of the French troops were made dependent on the actions of the enemy. The plan provided for the creation of three shock groups, but only one of them (Lorraine) received an active task - to advance on Lorraine and Alsace. The central grouping should become a link, covering the border in its zone, and the Belgian one should act depending on the behavior of the enemy. If the Germans begin to advance through Belgian territory, then this army should be ready to attack in a northeasterly direction; if the Germans did not take active action in neutral Belgium, she was to advance in an easterly direction.

The British plan proceeded from the fact that the allies - Russia and France - should take on the entire burden of waging war on land. The main task of the British armed forces was considered to ensure dominance at sea. For operations on land, it was planned to transfer seven divisions to France.

The Russian war plan, due to the economic and political dependence of tsarist Russia on Anglo-French capital, provided for simultaneous offensive operations against Austria-Hungary and Germany. The plan had two options.

Option "A". If Germany concentrated the main forces against France, then the main efforts of the Russian army were directed against Austria-Hungary.

Option "G". In the event that Germany inflicted the main blow on Russia, the Russian army turned its main efforts against Germany. The Northwestern Front was supposed to defeat the 8th German Army and capture East Prussia. The Southwestern Front was tasked with encircling the Austro-Hungarian troops stationed in Galicia.

By the beginning of the First World War, the strategic deployment of troops in accordance with the adopted war plans was completed by Germany and France in 16-17 days. It took Russia 30 days to mobilize and deploy troops. By the beginning of the war, neither side had an overall superiority in forces.

In this way:

1. In the era of imperialism, when the contradictions inherent in capitalist society reach an extreme degree of aggravation, when the development of capitalism proceeds extremely unevenly and spasmodically, when there is an all-round increase in political reaction and military aggression, predatory, predatory, predatory wars are waged for the redivision of the world, for world domination. In the era of imperialism, wars develop into world wars.

2. The formation of alliances of the largest states of Europe was a clear preparation for war and indicated the irresistibility of its approach. Internal and external contradictions forced the ruling circles of the European states to accelerate the unleashing of the war. The imperialists tried to instill in the peoples the idea of the inevitability of armed clashes, in every possible way propagated militarism and fomented chauvinism. The bourgeoisie, playing on the patriotic feelings of the peoples, justified the arms race and camouflaged the predatory goals with false arguments about the need to defend the Fatherland from external enemies.

3. Common to all the plans of the countries participating in the First World War was that they expressed the aggressive aspirations of individual powers, as well as both warring coalitions. At the same time, they reflected sharp contradictions between the individual imperialist states within the coalitions, each of which sought to place more of the military burden on its allies and gain more wealth by sharing the booty.

The strategic plans were devoid of purpose, did not clearly define the direction of the main attacks and did not ensure the creation of the necessary superiority to achieve the goals of the war.

First period recent history opened with a tragic chapter in the history of mankind - the First World War. But it did not so much resolve the old problems and contradictions as it gave rise to new ones. The causes of the First World War are manifold.

The main causes of the war:

The struggle for spheres of influence between the leading countries of the world;
The desire for a new redistribution of the colonies;
The growth of internal political contradictions in European countries and the desire to resolve or avoid them with the help of war;
The formation of opposing military-political alliances: the Entente and the Triple Alliance, the arms race, the militarization of the economy.

Members:

Entente: France + UK + Russia

Triple (Quadruple) Union:

Germany + Austria-Hungary + Italy + Turkey

- Italy + Bulgaria

Mutual Claims:
Great Britain:

Germany is the main rival in European politics, in sea trade and in the struggle for colonies;
There was an undeclared economic and trade war between the countries;
Great Britain could not forgive Germany for supporting the Boers in the Boer War of 1899–1902
But at the same time, she sought to keep Germany as a rival to Russia and France on the European continent;
It sought to take away the oil-rich lands of Mesopotamia and the Arabian Peninsula from Turkey.

These and other foreign policy interests led Britain to abandon the policy of "brilliant isolation" and join the anti-German alliance.

France:

Germany is the main enemy on the European continent;
She sought to take revenge for the defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870;
She hoped to return Alsace and Lorraine, to annex the Saar coal basin and the Ruhr;
French goods could not compete with German in the European market;
I was afraid of losing the colonies in North Africa.

For these reasons, France became an active participant in the anti-German bloc.

Russia:

She sought to expand her territory at the expense of Austria-Hungary, annexing Galicia;
Claimed control over the Black Sea straits Bosphorus and Dardanelles;
She regarded the construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railway as a violation of the agreement on the division of spheres of influence in the Balkans;
She hoped to maintain the role of "defender of all Slavic peoples" in the Balkans, supporting the anti-Austrian and anti-Turkish struggle of the peoples of the Balkans.
With the help of a victorious war, Russia sought to postpone the time for solving urgent domestic problems.

To solve these problems, Russia found allies in the person of Great Britain and France.
USA:

Strived to penetrate the European market;
They hoped to increase their influence in Asia and increase their penetration into China.

Those. become an active participant in European politics.
Germany:

The young dynamic state aspired to military, economic and political leadership;
The active conquest of sales markets led to a clash of interests with Great Britain;
Strived to preserve and expand colonial possessions at the expense of France, Holland, Belgium, Great Britain;
Intervened in the politics of the Middle East region.

Germany most aggressively sought dominance in world politics.
Austria-Hungary:

Expand your territory at the expense of Russia, Romania, Serbia;
Take away from Russia the role of "defender of all Slavic peoples";
Strengthen the authority of imperial power through a victorious war;
Suppress the growing anti-Austrian sentiment among the peoples of the multinational empire.

Having clashed with interests with Russia, Austria-Hungary found itself in the same bloc with Germany.
Italy:

The young state sought to strengthen its authority in Europe;
He hoped to get territorial acquisitions in Europe and in the colonies.

However, Italy had very limited capabilities for waging war, therefore, at the beginning of the war, she declared her neutrality and subsequently took the side of the Entente.

Turkey:

Competed with Russia and Great Britain for dominance over the Black Sea straits and influence on Middle East politics;
It sought to suppress the growing national liberation movement of the corrupted Slavic peoples on its territory.

Occasion:

June 28, 1914 in the capital of Bosnia - Sarajevo - a member of the secret Serbian patriotic organization "Young Bosnia" Gavriil Princip killed the nephew and heir of the Austro-Hungarian emperor Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia.

Start of the war:

On July 23, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia demanding that Austrian police be allowed into the country to investigate the murder. Serbia rejected this demand.

On July 29, Russia announced mobilization. Germany put forward an ultimatum to Russia demanding to stop mobilization. Russia rejected the ultimatum.

August 1 Germany declared war on Russia. This date is recognized as the beginning of the First World War.

ENTENTE

TRIPLE ALLIANCE

Highly professional British army and navy; Inexhaustible human resources Russian army, the courage of Russian soldiers; BUT Industrial backwardness of Russia, poor development of communications. Corrupt and incompetent leadership of the Russian army; The British army is small The allies are geographically cut off from each other The French army was not prepared for a prolonged conflict;

The German army was the best in Europe in terms of training and organization; The German population was seized by high patriotism and faith in its great purpose. Highly equipped with heavy artillery, machine guns, submarines, a wide network of railways. The Austro-Hungarian army was built following the example of the German army. Strategic preparation for war. BUT the multinational composition of the Austro-Hungarian army

Both sides were not ready for a long positional war, they did not expect the infantry to lose its ability to move. by the most a prime example misjudgment of the nature of modern warfare by the commands of both sides, there was a widespread belief that the most important role cavalry.

Schlieffen plan.

Schlieffen plan- a strategic plan for lightning war, developed by the chief of the German General Staff von Schlieffen.

The essence of the plan: during the first month, defeat France by invading its territory through Belgium, because. Russia will need at least a month and a half to fully mobilize and concentrate its troops on the border. Then it was planned to transfer all German troops against Russia and end the war in two months.

However, from the first days, events did not develop as the German command planned:

Belgium offered strong resistance;
France launched an offensive into German territory, invaded Alsace and Lorraine;
Great Britain entered the war;
Russia launched an offensive without waiting for the full deployment of its troops.

By September, the blitzkrieg plan is thwarted.
The course of hostilities. ( independent work students)
Study the course of hostilities according to available sources and evaluate them from the point of view of one of the warring parties

the date	Event	Result
September 5 - 12, 1914 August - September 1914 October 1914 December 1914	Battle of the Marne Battle of Galicia Battle of Tannenberg Austro-Hungarian troops launched an offensive against Serbia. Turkey entered the war on the side of the Triple Alliance, declaring war on Russia, Great Britain and France. Great Britain established a continental naval blockade of Germany Counteroffensive of the Serbian army Sarakamysh operation (Transcaucasia)	Anglo-French troops stopped the advance of the German army. A 600 km Western Front was formed from the borders of Switzerland to the Atlantic coast. Germany is forced to wage war on two fronts. The Russian army occupied Lvov. The German army surrounded the Russian army. Russia lost about 20 thousand people killed and was forced to leave East Prussia. They captured 45% of the territory of Serbia, including the capital - Belgrade. The Caucasian Front was formed. German cruisers entered the Black Sea and fired at Odessa, Sevastopol, Novorossiysk, Feodosia. The small German fleet was locked up in the ports of the North and Baltic Seas. The territory of Serbia was cleared of the troops of the Habsburg Empire, the Serbian troops continued their offensive on the territory of Austria-Hungary. The Nis Declaration was adopted, which formulated the strategic goal of Serbia in the war: the unification of all South Slavic lands around the Serbian dynasty of Karageorgievich. The Russian army defeated the Turkish and suffered fighting to the territory of Turkey.

The results of the military campaign in 1914:

The strategic plans of the countries of the Quadruple Alliance were thwarted, the plan for a blitzkrieg failed. Germany is forced to wage war on two fronts.
The war acquired a protracted character, turning into a positional ("sitting", trench) war. The parties abandoned large-scale hostilities, which were now mainly defensive in nature.
The war required the mobilization of all the economic and human resources of the warring states. The war included 38 states, in which approximately 75% of the population lived, more than 70 million men fought in the active armies.

the date	Event	Result
January 1915 February - March 1915 April 1915 May 1915 Autumn 1915	German aircraft began to raid the east coast of England. Anglo-German naval battle at Dogger Bank in the North Sea Beginning of the offensive of the Russian army in the Carpathians French offensive in Champagne. English offensive on Nevshtal Russian troops captured the fortress of Przemysl Germany declared an unlimited submarine war against Great Britain Anglo-French fleet attacked the Dardanelles (Turkish fortifications) German gas attack near Ypres (chlorine) Entente troops landed in the Gallipolli region (Turkey) Counteroffensive of the German-Austrian army on the Eastern Front Italy left the Triple Alliance and entered the war on the side of the Entente A German submarine sank the huge American passenger liner Lusitania Bulgaria entered the war on the side of the Triple Alliance, attacking Serbia	Sunk German cruiser "Blucher" These actions did not bring tangible results to the Allies. Over 100 thousand Austrians were taken prisoner. The Austro-German command concentrated its main forces on the Eastern Front. The waters surrounding England and Ireland were declared a military zone and any ship in these waters would be

The period under review was peaceful and stable for the countries of Western Europe and the United States compared to the first half of the century, which had several European wars and two world wars, two series of revolutionary events.

The dominant development in the second half of the 20th century is considered to be a significant progress along the path of scientific and technological progress, the transition from industrial to post-industrial society.. However, even in these decades, countries Western world faced a number of complex problems, such as the technological and information revolution, the collapse of colonial empires, the global economic crises of 1974-2975, 1980-1982, social performances in the 60-70s. etc. All of them demanded one or another restructuring of economic and social relations, the choice of ways of further development, compromises or toughening of political courses. In this regard, various political forces were replaced in power, mainly conservatives and liberals, who tried to strengthen their positions in a changing world. The first post-war years in European countries became a time of sharp struggle around issues of social structure, the political foundations of states. In a number of countries, for example in France, it was necessary to overcome the consequences of the occupation and the activities of collaborationist governments. And for Germany, Italy, it was about the complete elimination of the remnants of Nazism and fascism, the creation of new democratic states. Significant political battles unfolded around the elections to constituent assemblies, the development and adoption of new constitutions. In Italy, for example, the events associated with the choice of a monarchical or republican form of state went down in history as a "battle for the republic", the country was proclaimed a republic as a result of a referendum on June 18, 1946.

In the conservative camp, from the mid-1940s, the parties that combined the representation of the interests of large industrialists and financiers with the promotion of Christian values as enduring and uniting different social strata of ideological foundations became the most influential. These included: the Christian Democratic Party (CDA) in Italy, the People's Republican Movement in France, the Christian Democratic Union in Germany. These parties sought to gain broad support in society and emphasized adherence to the principles of democracy.

After the end of the warin most Western European countries established coalition governments in which the decisive role was played by representatives of the socialist left and, in some cases, the communists. Main activities These governments were the restoration of democratic freedoms, the cleansing of the state apparatus from members of the fascist movement, persons who collaborated with the invaders. The most significant step in the economic sphere was the nationalization of a number of sectors of the economy and enterprises. In France, 5 largest banks, the coal industry, the Renault automobile plant (whose owner collaborated with the occupation regime) were nationalized.

The 1950s constituted a special period in the history of Western European countries. It was a time of rapid economic development (the growth of industrial production reached 5-6% per year). Post-war industry was created using new machines and technologies. A scientific and technological revolution began, one of the main directions of which was the automation of production. The qualifications of workers who managed automatic lines and systems increased, and their wages also increased.

UK level wages in the 1950s, it increased by an average of 5% per year, while prices rose by 3% per year. In Germany during the 1950s real wages doubled. True, in some countries, for example, in Italy, in Austria, the figures were not so significant. In addition, governments periodically froze wages (prohibited its increase). This caused protests and strikes by workers. The economic recovery was especially noticeable in the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy. In the post-war years, the economy here was adjusted more difficult and slower than in other countries. Against this background, the situation in the 1950s was regarded as an "economic miracle." It became possible thanks to the restructuring of industry on a new technological basis, the creation of new industries (petrochemistry, electronics, the production of synthetic fibers, etc.), and the industrialization of agricultural areas. American assistance under the Marshall plan served as a significant help. favorable condition for the rise of production was that in the post-war years there was a great demand for various manufactured goods. On the other hand, there was a significant reserve of cheap labor (at the expense of immigrants, people from the village). The economic recovery was accompanied by social stability. Under conditions of reduced unemployment, relative price stability, and rising wages, workers' protests were reduced to a minimum. Their growth began in the late 1950s. , when some negative consequences of automation appeared - job cuts, etc. After a decade of stability in the life of Western European states, a period of shocks and changes began, associated both with problems of internal development and with the collapse of colonial empires.

So, in France, by the end of the 50s, there was crisis situation, caused by the frequent change of governments of socialists and radicals, the collapse of the colonial empire (the loss of Indochina, Tunisia, Morocco, the war in Algeria), the deterioration of the situation of workers. In such an environment, the idea of "strong power" was gaining more and more support, and Charles de Gaulle was an active supporter of it. In May 1958, the command of the French troops in Algeria refused to obey the government until Charles de Gaulle returned to it. The general declared that he was "ready to assume power in the republic", subject to the abolition of the 1946 Constitution and the granting of emergency powers to him. In the fall of 1958, the Constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted, which granted the head of state the broadest rights, and in December de Gaulle was elected president of France. Having established a regime of personal power, he sought to resist attempts to weaken the state from within and without. But on the issue of colonies, being a realistic politician, he soon decided that it was better to carry out decolonization “from above”, while maintaining influence in the former possessions, than to wait for a shameful expulsion, for example, because of Algeria, which fought for independence. De Gaulle's readiness to recognize the right of the Algerians to decide their own fate caused in 1960. anti-government military mutiny. And yet, in 1962, Algeria gained independence.

In the 1960s, speeches by different segments of the population under different slogans became more frequent in European countries. In France in 1961-1962. demonstrations and strikes were organized demanding an end to the rebellion of the ultra-colonialist forces opposed to the granting of independence to Algeria. In Italy, there were mass demonstrations against the activation of neo-fascists. The workers put forward both economic and political demands. The fight for higher wages included "white collars" - highly skilled workers, employees.

Crisis of 1974-1975 seriously complicated the economic and social situation in most Western European countries. Changes were needed, a restructuring of the economy. There were no resources for it under the existing social policy, state regulation of the economy did not work. The conservatives tried to answer the challenge of the time. Their focus on a free market economy, private enterprise and initiative was well aligned with the objective need for extensive investment in production.

In the late 70s and early 80s. conservatives came to power in many Western countries. In 1979, the Conservative Party won the parliamentary elections in Great Britain, the government was headed by M. Thatcher (the party remained in power until 1997). In 1980, Republican R. Reagan was elected President of the United States . The figures who came to power during this period were not in vain called the new conservatives. They have shown that they can look ahead and are capable of change. They were distinguished by political flexibility and assertiveness, appeal to the general population, neglect of lazy people, independence, self-reliance and striving for individual success.

In the late 90s. in many European countries, conservatives were replaced by liberals. In 1997, the Labor government headed by E. Blair came to power in the UK. In 1998, Schroeder, leader of the Social Democratic Party, became Chancellor of Germany. In 2005, he was replaced as chancellor by A. Merkel, who headed the grand coalition government.

Perestroika in the USSR caused similar processes in the countries of Eastern Europe. Meanwhile, the Soviet leadership by the end of the 80s. refused to preserve the regimes that existed in these countries, on the contrary, calling them to democratization. Leadership has changed in most of the ruling parties. But the attempts of the new leadership to carry out reforms, as in the Soviet Union, were unsuccessful. The economic situation worsened, the flight of the population to the West became widespread. Opposition forces formed, there were demonstrations and strikes everywhere. As a result of demonstrations in October-November 1989 in the GDR, the government resigned, and on November 9 the destruction of the Berlin Wall began. In 1990, the GDR and the FRG unified.

In most countries, the communists were removed from power. The ruling parties dissolved themselves or transformed into social democratic ones. Elections were held, in which the former oppositionists won. These events were called "velvet revolutions". However, not everywhere the revolutions were "velvet". In Romania, opponents of the head of state, Nicolae Ceausescu, staged an uprising in December 1989, as a result of which many people died. Ceausescu and his wife were killed. Dramatic events took place in Yugoslavia, where the elections in all the republics except Serbia and Montenegro were won by parties opposed to the communists. In 1991, Slovenia, Croatia and Macedonia declared independence. In Croatia, a war immediately began between Serbs and Croats, as the Serbs feared the persecution that took place during World War II by the Croatian Ustaše fascists. Initially, the Serbs created their own republics, but by 1995 they were captured by the Croats with the support of Western countries, and most Serbs were exterminated or expelled.

In 1992, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence. Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, an interethnic war broke out between Serbs, Croats and Muslims. On the side of the Bosnian Muslims and Croats, the armed forces of the NATO countries intervened. The war continued until the end of 1995, when the Serbs were forced to succumb to the pressure of superior NATO forces.

The state of Bosnia and Herzegovina is now divided into two parts: the Republika Srpska and the Muslim-Croat federation. The Serbs lost part of their lands.

In 1998 open conflict broke out between Albanians and Serbs in Kosovo, which was part of Serbia. The extermination and expulsion of Serbs by Albanian extremists forced the Yugoslav authorities to enter into an armed struggle against them. However, in 1999 NATO began bombing Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav army was forced to leave Kosovo, whose territory was occupied by NATO troops. Most of the Serbian population was destroyed and expelled from the region. On February 17, 2008, Kosovo, with the support of the West, unilaterally illegally declared independence.

After the overthrow of President Slobodan Milosevic in 2000 during the "color revolution", the disintegration of the FRY continued. In 2003, the confederal state of Serbia and Montenegro was formed. In 2006, Montenegro seceded, and two independent states emerged: Serbia and Montenegro.

The collapse of Czechoslovakia took place peacefully. After a referendum, it was divided in 1993 into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

After political changes in all Eastern European countries, transformations began in the economy and other spheres of society. Everywhere they abandoned the planned economy, moving on to the restoration of market relations. Privatization was carried out, foreign capital received strong positions in the economy. The first transformations went down in history under the name "shock therapy", as they were associated with a fall in production, mass unemployment, inflation, etc. Particularly radical changes in this regard took place in Poland. Social stratification has intensified everywhere, crime and corruption have increased.

By the end of the 90s. the situation in most countries has stabilized somewhat. Inflation was overcome, economic growth began. The Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland have achieved some success. Foreign investment played a big role in this. Gradually, traditional mutually beneficial ties with Russia and other post-Soviet states were also restored. But the global economic crisis that began in 2008 had devastating consequences for the economies of Eastern European countries.

In foreign policy, all countries of Eastern Europe are oriented towards the West, most of them in early XXI in. joined NATO and the EU. The internal political situation in these countries is characterized by a change in power between right and left parties. However, their policies both within the country and in the international arena largely coincide.

In the people's democracies (Eastern Europe), the gap between constitutions and reality in the sphere of the rights and freedoms of citizens was especially pronounced. Violation of them on the part of the party communist and state bodies had a permanent and massive character. This caused discontent and protest.

So, as a result of a popular uprising, the hated communist regime of N. Ceausescu was overthrown in Romania in December 1989. The struggle of the Albanians to eliminate the communist regime in their country ended in 1992. Changes did not pass by Bulgaria, where democratic forces also came to power. The process of democratization of public and state life has spread to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

In the early 90s. new constitutions were adopted. They changed not only the names of states, but also the essence of the social and political system, they perceived universal and democratic values.

According to the new constitution of 1991, the Bulgarian People's Republic became the Republic of Bulgaria. The new Romanian Constitution was approved in November 1991. Instead of the Romanian People's Republic, the Republic of Romania appeared. Czechoslovakia ceased to exist, and two independent states of the Czech and Slovak Republics arose on its basis. Their constitutions were soon adopted. In 1990, radical changes were made to the constitution of the Hungarian People's Republic, which changed the nature and names of the state. And the constitution of the Polish People's Republic was supplemented by two new constitutional laws. These are the law on the relationship between the legislative and executive authorities of the Republic of Poland and the law on territorial self-government.

Constitutions enshrined republican, democratic political system formed on the basis of universal suffrage. They guaranteed pluralism in political life, a real multi-party system, and the diversity of social movements. New relations were also defined between parties and state structures, which were aimed at preventing the usurpation of state power. Constitutions and fixed the changes in the functions of the head of state, in the role of which the collective body ceased to act. The president of the state was restored everywhere. It was often envisaged that he would be elected by popular vote, and he himself was endowed with significant powers of authority, the right of suspensive veto, and the right to dissolve parliament.

Initially, in Poland, the president had considerable powers in the sphere of legislative and executive power, which gave grounds to consider it as a parliamentary-presidential republic. On May 2, 1997, a new constitution was adopted in Poland, which somewhat reduced the powers of the president, and transferred part of them to the Sejm and the government. He no longer has a leading role in determining the government's program, and when appointing and removing ministers, he must take into account the proposals of the Prime Minister.

Constitution Eastern European countries provide for the responsibility of the head of state, the possibility of his impeachment for violating the constitution or for a criminal offense.

So accused of complicity in the fraudulent actions of commercial structures in 1997, without waiting for impeachment, the President of Albania was forced to leave his post

The most important object of constitutional regulation in Eastern European countries is the equalization of the rights of national minorities.

For example, the Bulgarian constitution contains a provision prohibiting the forced assimilation of Turks and other non-Slavs living in it. However, at the same time, there is a provision in the constitution that prohibits the "creation of autonomous territorial entities." In the constitutions of Eastern European states, the provision of a list of rights and freedoms to citizens is in accordance with the norms of international humanitarian law. At the same time, much attention is paid to granting citizens economic, social and cultural rights, the right to a healthy environment.

The object of constitutional regulation is also the establishment of duties, which, unlike previous constitutions, are reduced to a minimum. Ownership is guaranteed, but with certain restrictions.

“Property” says Art. 20 of the Slovak constitution, - obliges. It cannot be used to infringe on the rights of others, or in conflict with the general interests protected by law.” Constitutions are often recognized as an object of state property, which is not subject to privatization and belongs to national wealth.

In Eastern European countries, one of the forms of persecution of dissidents in totalitarian regimes there was an arbitrary deprivation of their citizenship and expulsion from the country, therefore, in new constitutions, for example, in the constitution of Bulgaria, there is a guarantee that “No one can be deprived of citizenship and expelled from the country (Article 61).