Origin and formation of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language. The origin of the vocabulary of the Russian language. Original Russian vocabulary

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign language sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its development. historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others, thanks to the development of the Russian language, relatively recently.

Original Russian vocabulary it is heterogeneous in origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.

The most ancient among native Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms- words preserved from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages ​​\u200b\u200b(for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).

Words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of management, types of kinship, etc. go back to the Indo-European parent language-base: oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew and etc.

Another layer of native Russian vocabulary is made up of words pan-Slavic, inherited by our language from the common Slavic (proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. the common Slavic language fell apart, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious even in our time.

There are a lot of nouns among common Slavic words. These are, first of all, concrete nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, seine, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage.

The third layer of native Russian words consists of East Slavic(Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. within the territory of of Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. Therefore, the words that have remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, both in Ukrainian and in Belarusian, but are absent in the languages ​​of the Western and Southern Slavs.

As part of the East Slavic vocabulary, one can distinguish: 1) the names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch; 2) names of labor tools: axe, blade; 3) names of household items: boots, ladle, casket, ruble; 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller; 5) names of settlements: village, freedom.

The fourth layer of native Russian words is proper Russian vocabulary, formed after the XIV century, i.e., in the era of independent development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. These languages ​​already have their own equivalents for words belonging to the proper Russian vocabulary. Actually Russian words are distinguished, as a rule, by a derivative basis: bricklayer, flyer, dressing room, community, intervention and under.

A special place in the composition of Russian vocabulary among Slavic borrowings is occupied by Old Slavonic words, or Old Slavonicisms(Church Slavism). These are the words of the most ancient Slavic language, well known in Russia since the spread of Christianity (988).

Being the language of liturgical books, the Old Church Slavonic language was at first far from colloquial speech, but over time it experiences a noticeable influence of the East Slavic language and, in turn, leaves its mark on the language of the people. Russian chronicles reflect numerous cases of mixing of these related languages.

Of the non-Slavic languages, the very first borrowings into the Russian language as early as the 8th-12th centuries. From Scandinavian languages ​​(Swedish, Norwegian), words related to sea fishing came to us: skerries, anchor, hook, gaff, proper names: Rurik, Oleg, Olga, Igor, Askold. In the official business speech of Ancient Russia, the now obsolete words were used vira, tiun, sneak, stigma.

The most significant influence on the language of Ancient Russia was the influence Greek language. Kievan Rus conducted a lively trade with Byzantium, and the penetration of Greek elements into Russian vocabulary began even before the adoption of Christianity in Russia (VI century) and intensified under the influence of Christian culture in connection with the baptism of the Eastern Slavs (IX century), the distribution of liturgical books translated from Greek language into Old Church Slavonic.

Greek in origin are many names of household items, vegetables, fruits: cherry, cucumber, doll, ribbon, tub, beets, lantern, bench, sauna; words related to science, education: grammar, mathematics, history, philosophy, notebook, alphabet, dialect; borrowings from the field of religion: angel, altar, pulpit, anathema, archimandrite, antichrist, archbishop, demon, oil, gospel, icon, incense, cell, schema, icon lamp, monk, monastery, sexton, archpriest, memorial service

Latin the language also played a significant role in the enrichment of Russian vocabulary (including terminology), associated mainly with the sphere of scientific, technical and socio-political life. The following words go back to the Latin source: author, administrator, audience, student, exam, external student, minister, justice, operation, censorship, dictatorship, republic, deputy, delegate, rector, excursion, expedition, revolution, constitution etc.

Language as a system is in constant motion, development, and the most mobile level of language is vocabulary: it primarily reacts to all changes in society, replenishing with new words. At the same time, the names of objects, phenomena that are no longer used in the life of different peoples, are completely out of use.

In each period of the development of the language, words belonging to active vocabulary, constantly used in speech, and words that have gone out of everyday use and therefore have received an archaic coloring. At the same time, new words are distinguished in the lexical system, which are just entering it and therefore seem unusual, retain a shade of freshness, novelty. Obsolete and new words are two fundamentally different groups in the vocabulary passive vocabulary.

ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF THE MODERN VOCABULARY OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE. The parameters of a linguistic personality are characterized by a certain vocabulary - a lexicon.

Some are rich, some are poor. Lexicon (or lexicon) - a set of words of any language, the vocabulary of the language. It should be noted that the vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development.

Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others - relatively recently. Replenishment of Russian vocabulary went in two directions. 1. New words were created from word-forming elements available in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). Thus, the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed. 2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages ​​as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.

The composition of Russian vocabulary in terms of its origin can be schematically represented in the table. Vocabulary of the modern Russian language native Russian words borrowed words Indo-Europeanisms common Slavic vocabulary East Slavic vocabulary proper Russian vocabulary from Slavic languages ​​from non-Slavic languages: Scandinavian, Turkic, Latin, Greek, German, French, English, etc. borrowings Vocabulary is the central part of the language, naming, forming and transmitting knowledge about the objects of reality.

According to social use, origin and functional orientation, the vocabulary is divided into layers, between which there are no rigid boundaries. All social transformations in the life of society are realized by the vocabulary of the language. The vocabulary of the language is the most open and mobile area of ​​the language. New words constantly enter it and old ones gradually leave. The growing sphere of human knowledge, first of all, is fixed in words and their meanings, due to which there are more and more lexical acquisitions in the language. Education, science, the latest technology, information from other cultures - all this forms a new type of modern society (information), in which a new language style is formed - the style of the era of information development.

Language is a powerful means of regulating people's activities in various fields, therefore, studying the speech behavior of a modern person, understanding how a person speaks the language, how and how effectively he uses this wealth is a very important and urgent task. The vocabulary of the modern Russian language consists of more than half a million words. The modern lexicon is rapidly replenished with words and concepts about which, even a few years ago, most of us, if we had any idea, were very vague.

In general, the 21st century is a century of a surge of passionarity (the desire of an ethnic group for renewal and development). There is a return of words, groups of words, spheres that were in the passive reserve of the language. Words are returning to active life, beating in the deep storehouses of the language: the names of the social structure of pre-revolutionary Russia - ataman, Cossack circle, noble assembly, merchants; administrative vocabulary - governor, department, municipal district; vocabulary of education - gymnasium, lyceum; names of persons by social status - entrepreneur, merchant, shareholder; religious vocabulary of Old Slavonic origin - benevolence, charity, dissent, repentance, mercy; confessional vocabulary - faith, vigil, sin, commandment, confession, liturgy.

Many of the returned words were re-evaluated.

There is also a change in connotations or illogical fragments of meaning (for example, an inhabitant, an oligarch), a new phraseology appears (shock therapy, shadow incomes, a living wage, plastic cards, two in one). What is new in such clichés is precisely the combination of words, and not words as such. A combination of new, relevant phraseological units may involve a certain set of keywords that combine phrases into a single semantic field. There is a process of expanding the compatibility of words. Neologisms appear, or new words that are necessary for the language in this moment its development. 3. TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE At present, a number of trends in the development of the modern Russian language can be distinguished: the process of language computerization (based on Russian and English). Blocks of technicalisms are being formed.

As the language of predominantly young people, computer slang contains many specific words. Since the computer field of activity is one of the most actively developing, the dictionary here is constantly updated with new lexical units, and due to the rapid obsolescence of computer programs and the equipment itself, many words disappear just as quickly. On the basis of this professional language, slang is created, the creators of which show maximum ingenuity in combining English and Russian roots and English roots and Russian word-formation forms, metaphorically transformed international terms are also used right there.

Here are some examples: clave (keyboard); stomp the keyboard (enter data from the keyboard); Aibolit (Aidstest antivirus program); Asthma (Assembler programming language); bug (English, bug - bug, virus; error, failure in the program); loaves (buttons); blink (English, blink - flicker; blink); bykapit (English, buck up - duplication; make a copy); bang (erase); Dr. Aibolit (antivirus program); dupy (English, double - doublet; repetitions); Carlson (fan); quote (quote); shreds (English, clock - hour; hours); boxes (computer itself); lammer ("teapot", inept user); polish glitches (debug the program); hacker (computer cracker); emoticons (English, smile - smile) - denotes the totality of the "non-verbal part" of written communication.

There is a wide borrowing of foreign words - foreign words are well mastered on Russian soil.

Signs of such development are: 1) the connection of the word to the system of declensions; 2) connection of the word to the word-formation system; 3) the appearance of these words in headlines, in written speech (monitor, insight, etc.); 4) in Russian, the mastered word acquires a different meaning in contrast to the main source (for example, blockbuster: in the Russian sense it is an action movie, and in the American sense it is expensive). Positive side borrowing is that the language becomes international, it becomes easier to learn.

There are the following ways of introducing foreign words into the text: the word is introduced without explaining its meaning; with an explanation of the meaning; the word is used in the presence of a Russian-language synonym. a serious problem is the process of vulgarization of the language, especially in the form of jargon and criminalization (throw, got it, scam). The abundance of modern novels, action films, detective stories contribute to the process of vulgarization.

It is necessary to distinguish between the use of jargon by the type of interspersing with signals of someone else's speech ("scam", as such and such says) and mass jargon.

The verge of language vulgarization is detabooing (for example, the taboo is removed from sexual vocabulary). At the same time, the most negative consequence of the vulgarization of the language is the washing out of the high. The vulgarization of the language and the washing out of the high changes the entire traditional image of the Russian language. Of no small importance for the formation of the modern lexicon is the process of carnivalization of the language (since perestroika) - this is a reaction to the liberation from language policy, censorship and ideology.

A striking sign of carnivalization is a language game, or a game with language, that is, the deformation of linguistic structures that have a laughter or pleasure effect. (MOLOTOCHINA); (KREMLIN-brule; "from six acres to six hundredths"). True, in order to understand the language game, it is necessary to know the layers of the national culture. Modern vocabulary is characterized by insufficient development of figurativeness - after all, the Russian language is the most figurative language in the world. At present, there is a shortage of such figurative means in the Russian language as metaphor and comparison.

A serious problem is also the clericalization of the language - the penetration into the ordinary language of business clichés, which many tend to use in place and out of place. In general, according to many modern scientists, the state of the Russian language of the post-Soviet era, on the one hand, indicates the liberation of the language from ideological dictate, the active development of the creative linguistic abilities of native speakers, the internationalization of the language; on the other hand, linguistic freedom vulgarized the image of the modern Russian language, made it difficult to use the high layers of the language, led to the impoverishment and vulgarization of the speech of the average native speaker and to the crisis of high Russian literature. The liberalization of modern speech, its obvious democratism, have a significant impact on the assessment of speech behavior.

The freedom and emancipation of the language entails the loosening of linguistic norms, the growth of linguistic variability (instead of one acceptable form of a linguistic unit, different variants). Sloppy speech, adherence to cliches, the desire to cover up the banality of thought with "prestigious" words and phrases are found in numerous statements that sound on radio waves and from TV screens.

The current state of the Russian language is characterized by inaccurate use of vocabulary, distortion of the meanings of words, and stylistic speech disorders. Lexical speech defects modern man are: the spread of words with a narrow (situational) meaning (state employee, contract worker, beneficiary, industry worker, security official); the use of borrowings that are incomprehensible to many, sometimes even to the speaker himself (briefing, distributor); the use of abbreviations (UIN, OBEP, OODUUM and PDN ATC, civil defense and emergency situations); The style of speech (in almost all functional styles) today is also characterized by such negative traits: transformation of metaphors into new patterns (power vertical, economic recovery), sometimes meaningless; the use of categorical words (for example, famous unambiguously); the use of words that hide the essence of phenomena (social insecurity (poverty); the penetration of jargon into journalistic and oral official speech. At the present stage, there has been an obvious combination of vernacular and jargon in newspaper and journalistic texts, which indicates an undesirable vulgarization of the literary language.

Youth slang and criminal subculture became especially active in this process.

As a result, professional languages, youth slang and criminal slang became the distributors of slang words in the literary language (for example, scoop, party, cool chaos). The words disassembly and tusovka have become widely used, and the contexts indicate that these words have gone beyond the limits of narrow slang usage.

Dismantling with the slang meaning of the conflict, settling accounts - this is only one of the private uses of the word.

The etymology of the word party goes back to the card term to shuffle. Derived from this concept of a party-goer, hanging out are provided with ironic connotations (a shade of idle pastime). Currently, the verb to hang out has the meaning "to communicate, be friends": artists, artists, etc. hang out. The noun tusovka is used both as a designation for a meeting, mass communication, and as a collective name for hanging out. But a special, impetuous career was made by the former slang word chaos.

In the Dictionary of S.I. Ozhegova, N.Yu. Shvedova (1998) defines the word as colloquial with the meaning "an extreme degree of lawlessness, disorder". However, the life of this word does not fit into such a brief and neutral characterization. While still in criminal jargon, it had more than one meaning: 1) violence, murder, associated with the violation of the norms accepted in this environment; 2) rebellion in the zone. In today's newspaper materials, the transformation of the meanings of the word chaos goes in two directions: in the direction of greater concreteness and at the same time in the direction of greater abstraction.

In the first case, phrases appear: lawlessness of the police, lawlessness of the authorities, lawlessness of the army, etc. In the second, more generalized meanings are acquired, related to the activities of social institutions: administrative lawlessness, commercial lawlessness, legal lawlessness, lawlessness of power, lawlessness of mismanagement, lawlessness of false democracy, the chaos of "wild" post-Soviet capitalism, the August chaos; 3) abuse of emotionally colored vocabulary in official public speech. But it is impossible not to say that some positive trends have formed in the speech practice of modern society: the expansion of the vocabulary of the language in the field of economic, political and legal vocabulary; approximation of the language of the media to the needs of reliable coverage of reality; convergence of the language of notes and correspondence with literary colloquial speech; de-ideologization of some layers of vocabulary; the exit from the use of many newspaper stamps of the Soviet era.

End of work -

This topic belongs to:

The richness of speech of a linguistic personality

A linguistic personality exists in the space of culture reflected in the language. Each linguistic personality is formed on the basis of a person's appropriation of everything. For someone he is rich, for someone he is poor. Lexicon (or lexicon) - a set of words of any language, vocabulary ..

If you need additional material on this topic, or you did not find what you were looking for, we recommend using the search in our database of works:

What will we do with the received material:

If this material turned out to be useful for you, you can save it to your page on social networks:

Vocabulary- the vocabulary of the language. It has been formed over the centuries and is constantly replenished in two main ways: 1) through the use of its own resources (roots and affixes, that is, service morphemes) and 2) by borrowing. Thus, from the point of view of origin, all words of the Russian language are divided into primordially Russian(at the moment there are about 90%) and borrowed(about 10%). The layer of native Russian vocabulary was formed in several stages, so several groups of words are distinguished in it: 1) Indo-European, 2) common Slavic, 3) Old Russian, and 4) proper Russian.

1. Indo-European vocabulary- words that have been preserved in modern Russian since the time of the Indo-European community (II millennium BC) and, as a rule, have correspondences in other Indo-European languages. These are primarily terms of kinship (mother, son, brother) animal names (mouse, bull, sheep, wolf).
2. Common Slavic vocabulary- words that arose during the period of the existence of the common Slavic language (until the 6th-7th centuries AD). This group includes, for example, the names of body parts (heart, eye, beard etc.), plant names (pine, oak, maple etc.) and signs (white, old, blond etc.), some names of animals (horse, nightingale, goose etc.), designations of natural phenomena (spring, winter etc.), names of buildings, labor processes, tools, etc. (house, floor, hoe, whip, forge etc.), food names (kvass, fat, jelly and etc.).
3. East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary- words that appeared in the era of the settlement of the Slavs (ancestors of modern Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians) in Eastern Europe (VI-IX centuries) and during the formation of the Old Russian language (nice, stepdaughter, lace, squirrel, forty, today and etc.).
4. Proper Russian vocabulary- words that appeared in the language of the Great Russian people (XIV-XVII centuries) and the national Russian language (from the middle of the XVII century to the present). The actual Russians include the names of actions (groaning, grumbling) names of household items and food (wallpaper, cover, jam, cabbage rolls), names of abstract concepts (sadness, experience, outcome, deceit) and many others.

In addition to the original vocabulary, in the Russian language there are groups of words borrowed from other languages ​​at different times. Borrowing- this is the transition of elements of one language to another as a result of contacts between peoples and the interaction of languages. Borrowed words in the process of use are influenced by the borrowing language, while many of them become common and are not perceived as foreign. Are considered Russian borrowed from the Greek word bath, sugar, beets, a word that comes from Latin school, from French costume and many others.

Depending on which language the words came from, there are two types of borrowings:

• related borrowings (Slavic);
• foreign language borrowings (non-Slavic).

Related language borrowings include a large group of words of Old Slavonic origin, which became widespread in Russia after the adoption of Christianity, at the end of the 10th century. Church terms came from the Old Church Slavonic language (the first literary language of the Slavs) to Russian (cross, priest, sacrifice) many words denoting abstract concepts (consent, grace, virtue, power, disaster and etc.). Old Slavonicisms have a number of distinctive features:

• sound (phonetic):
  1) disagreement, cf.: hail - city, captivity - full, shore - coast, voice - voice;
  2) initial ra-, la-, compare: equal - smooth, boat - boat;
  3) combination railway, consonant sch, compare: driving - I drive, hope - reliable, lighting - a candle, help - help;
  4) initial [a], [ye], [yu], compare: lamb -lamb, az - me,unit - one,yuzy - bonds, holy fool - a freak;
  5) combination ie, compare: drinking - drinking, happiness - happiness;
• derivational:
  1) prefixes air-, without-, times-, from-, bottom-, through-, pre-, pre-, y-, co-: ascension, sinless, overthrow, excessive, companion;
  2) suffixes - stvi (e) (prosperity), -ch (s) (trapping), -zn (life), -usch, -yushch, -ashch, -yashch (knowledgeable, melting, burning, lying);
  3) characteristic first parts of compound words: good-, god-, good-, evil-, sin-, soul-, one-, all-, alive-, false- etc. (grace, love of God, virtue, malevolence, fall into sin);
  4) the second part of compound words: - faith, - fighter, - giver, - child, - loving, - word etc. (superstition, iconoclast, peace-loving, idle talk);
• morphological and syntactic:
  1) participles and participial phrases;
  2) characteristic endings of adjectives (holy - holy(Russian), honest - honest);
  
• semantic-stylistic: in comparison with Russian concrete words, Old Slavonicisms can be recognized by their abstract meaning - captivate(compare Russian . fuck off), country(cf. Rus. side),
  as well as in relation to the religious and cult sphere (sacrament, prophet). Old Slavonicisms often retain a tinge of bookishness and can serve as a means of creating a sublime, solemn emotional coloring. (We are tormented by spiritual thirst, in the gloomy desert I dragged(A. Pushkin), historical stylization, as well as humor, irony, satire.

There are also borrowings in Russian from other closely related Slavic languages, for example, from Belarusian, Ukrainian (borscht, cheese, bagel, kids), Polish (apartment, jacket, colonel, draw, beg), Slovak, etc.

At different stages of the development of Russian vocabulary, it included non-Slavic borrowings, including Greek, Latin, Turkic, Scandinavian, Western European.

Borrowing from Greek began to penetrate even in the common Slavic period (bread, bed, dish), later many words from the field of religion poured in (angel, demon, icon), science and art (mathematics, history, grammar, verse, comedy, idea), proper names (Alexander, Nikolai, Elena, Anastasia), names of plants and animals (cedar, beets, crocodile). Them characteristic features are: sound [f] (philosophy), initial [e] (ethics, epigraph), root morphemes auto-, aero-, bio-, geo-, thermo-, tele-, photo- etc.; prefixes a-, anti-, pan- (biology, antibiotic).

Words from Latin significantly enriched the Russian language in the field of scientific, technical, social and political terminology (school, holidays, director, exam, secretary, office). Many words of Latin origin are included in the international fund of terms: constitution, corporation, maximum, minimum, process, public, revolution and etc.

As a result of trade and cultural ties, as well as military clashes, many words from Turkic languages(pearls, beads, feather grass, idol). Most words from Tatar language: treasury, money, bazaar, raisins, watermelon, shoe, bathrobe, bay.

The most numerous (after Old Church Slavonic) is a group of borrowings from Western European languages. From German came many words of trade, military, household, vocabulary and words from the field of art and science: stamp, camp, headquarters, tie, resort. In the XVII-XIX centuries. were borrowed from the French word from the field of art, everyday life, as well as socio-political and military terminology: marmalade, shop, blinds, broth, battalion, bureau, intermission. One of the distinguishing features of these words is the stress on the last syllable. Borrowings from the English language began to penetrate in the Petrine era, but the bulk of the words came in the 19th-20th centuries. These are mainly technical, socio-political terms, sports and everyday vocabulary, words related to navigation: station, trolleybus, parliament, rating, champion, sports, coach, yacht, steak, cottage, timer. There are borrowings in Russian from Dutch (marine terminology), Italian (vocabulary from the sphere of financial relations and music), Spanish, Finnish; single loanwords from Japanese (kamikaze, geisha), Arabic (algebra, alcohol).

Many borrowed words undergo various changes, such as phonetic (sound), morphological (a borrowed word can change gender or move from one part of speech to another), semantic (expansion or narrowing of meaning, rethinking).

The origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others relatively recently.

Replenishment of Russian vocabulary went in two directions.

1. New words were created from word-forming elements (roots, suffixes, prefixes) available in the language. Thus, the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.
2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages ​​as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.

The composition of Russian vocabulary in terms of its origin can be schematically represented in the table.

Vocabulary of the modern Russian language

Original Russian vocabulary

The original Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.

The most ancient among the original Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms - words that have survived from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to scientists, in the V-IV millennium BC. e. there was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living on a rather vast territory. So, according to the studies of some linguists, it stretched from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was the Balkan-Danubian, or South Russian, localization1 Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages ​​(for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).

Words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of management, types of kinship, etc. go back to the Indo-European parent language: oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew, etc.

Another layer of native Russian vocabulary consists of common Slavic words inherited by our language from common Slavic (proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. the common Slavic language fell apart, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious even in our time.

There are a lot of nouns among common Slavic words. These are, first of all, concrete nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, seine, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage, thought.

From other parts of speech in the common Slavic vocabulary, verbs are presented: see, hear, grow, lie; adjectives: kind, young, old, wise, cunning; numerals: one, two, three; pronouns: I, you, we, you; pronominal adverbs: where, as well as some service parts of speech: over, a, and, yes, but, etc.

The common Slavic vocabulary has about two thousand words, however, this relatively small vocabulary is the core of the Russian dictionary, it includes the most common, stylistically neutral words used both in oral and written speech.

The Slavic languages, which had the ancient Proto-Slavic language as their source, separated themselves into three groups according to sound, grammatical and lexical features: southern, western and eastern.

The third layer of native Russian words consists of East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. on the territory of Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. Therefore, the words that have remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, both in Ukrainian and in Belarusian, but are absent in the languages ​​of the Western and Southern Slavs.

As part of the East Slavic vocabulary, one can distinguish: 1) the names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch; 2) names of tools: axe, blade; 3) names of household items: boots, ladle, chest, ruble; 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller; 5) names of settlements: village, settlement and other lexical-semantic groups.

The fourth layer of primordially Russian words is the native Russian vocabulary, which was formed after the 14th century, i.e., in the era of the independent development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. These languages ​​already have their own equivalents for words belonging to the proper Russian vocabulary. Wed lexical units:

Actually Russian words are distinguished, as a rule, by a derivative basis: a mason, a leaflet, a locker room, a community, an intervention, etc.

It should be emphasized that in the composition of the Russian vocabulary itself there may also be words with foreign roots that have passed the path of Russian word formation and acquired Russian suffixes, prefixes: party spirit, non-party, aggressiveness; ruler, glass, teapot; words with a complex stem: a radio center, a steam locomotive, as well as many complex abbreviated words that replenished our language in the 20th century: Moscow Art Theater, timber industry, wall newspaper, etc.

The original Russian vocabulary continues to be replenished with words that are created on the basis of the word-formation resources of the language, as a result of a wide variety of processes characteristic of Russian word formation.

See also the new theory of the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans Gamkrelidze T.V., Ivanov V.V. Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans. Reconstruction and historical-typological analysis of proto-language and proto-culture. Tbilisi, 1984.

Borrowings from Slavic languages

A special place in the composition of Russian vocabulary among Slavic borrowings is occupied by Old Slavonic words, or Old Slavonicisms (Church Slavonicisms). These are the words of the most ancient Slavic language, well known in Russia since the spread of Christianity (988).

Being the language of liturgical books, the Old Church Slavonic language was at first far from colloquial speech, but over time it experiences a noticeable influence of the East Slavic language and, in turn, leaves its mark on the language of the people. Russian chronicles reflect numerous cases of mixing of these related languages.

The influence of the Old Church Slavonic language was very fruitful, it enriched our language, made it more expressive and flexible. In particular, Old Slavonicisms began to be used in Russian vocabulary, denoting abstract concepts for which there were no names yet.

As part of the Old Slavonicisms that have replenished the Russian vocabulary, several groups can be distinguished: 1) words that go back to the common Slavic language, having East Slavic variants of a different sound or affixal design: gold, night, fisherman, boat; 2) Old Slavonicisms, which do not have consonant Russian words: finger, mouth, cheeks, persi (cf. Russian: finger, lips, cheeks, chest); 3) semantic Old Slavonicisms, that is, common Slavic words that received a new meaning in the Old Slavonic language associated with Christianity: god, sin, sacrifice, fornication.

Old Slavonic borrowings have characteristic phonetic, derivational and semantic features.

The phonetic features of Old Slavonicisms include:

• disagreement, i.e. combinations -ra-, -la-, -re-, -le- between consonants in place of full-vowel Russians -oro-, -olo-, -ere-, -ele, -elo- as part of one morpheme: brada - beard, youth - youth, a series - a series, a helmet - a helmet, a milk - milk,
• combinations of ra-, la- at the beginning of the word in place of Russian ro-, lorab, boat; cf. east slavic rob, boat,
• a combination of zhd in place of Russian w, ascending to a single common Slavic consonance: clothing, hope, between; cf. East Slavic: clothes, hope, between;
• consonant u in place of Russian h, also ascending to the same common Slavic consonance: night, daughter; cf. East Slavic: night, daughter,
• the vowel e at the beginning of the word in place of the Russian o deer, one, cf. East Slavic: deer, one;
• the vowel e under stress before a hard consonant in place of the Russian o (e): cross, sky; cf. godfather, palate.

Other Old Slavonicisms retain Old Slavonic prefixes, suffixes, a complex stem, characteristic of Old Slavonic word formation:

• prefixes voz-, from-, bottom-, through-, pre-, pre-: sing, exile, send down, extraordinary, transgress, predict;
• suffixes -stvi(e), -eni(e), -ani(e), -zn, -tv(a), -h(s), -ush-, -yush-, -ash-, -yash-: advent, prayer, torment, execution, prayer, helmsman, leader, knowing, screaming, smashing;
• complex foundations with elements typical of Old Slavonicism: God-fearing, benevolence, malevolence, superstition, gluttony.

It is also possible to classify Old Slavonicisms based on their semantic and stylistic differences from Russian words.

1. Most Old Slavonicisms are distinguished by book coloring, solemn, upbeat sound, youth, breg, hand, sing, sacred, imperishable, omnipresent, etc.
2. From such Old Slavonicisms, those that do not stylistically stand out against the background of the rest of the vocabulary (many of them replaced the corresponding East Slavic variants, duplicating their meaning) sharply differ: helmet, sweet, work, moisture; cf. obsolete Old Russian: shelom, licorice, vologa.
3. A special group is made up of Old Slavonicisms, used along with Russian variants that have received a different meaning in the language: dust - gunpowder, betray - transfer, head (of government) - head, citizen - city dweller, etc.

The Old Church Slavonicisms of the second and third groups are not perceived by the speakers of the modern Russian language as alien - they have become so Russified that they practically do not differ from native Russian words. Unlike such, genetic, Old Slavonicisms, the words of the first group retain their connection with the Old Slavonic, bookish language; many of them in the last century were an integral part of the poetic vocabulary: Persian, cheeks, mouth, sweet, voice, hair, golden, young, etc. Now they are perceived as poeticisms, and G.O. Vinokur called them stylistic Slavisms1

From other closely related Slavic languages, separate words came to the Russian language, which practically do not stand out among the original Russian vocabulary. From the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, the names of household items were borrowed, for example, Ukrainianisms: borscht, dumplings, dumplings, hopak. A lot of words came to us from the Polish language: town, monogram, harness, zrazy, gentry. Through the Polish language, Czech and other Slavic words were borrowed: ensign, impudent, angle, etc.

1 See. Vinokur G.O. On Slavicisms in the Modern Russian Literary Language // Selected Works in the Russian Language, Moscow, 1959. P. 443.

Borrowings from non-Slavic languages

The history of our people was reflected in the borrowing of foreign words by the Russian language in different eras. Economic, political, cultural contacts with other countries, military clashes left their mark on the development of the language.

The very first borrowings from non-Slavic languages ​​penetrated into the Russian language as early as the 8th-12th centuries. From the Scandinavian languages ​​​​(Swedish, Norwegian) came to us words related to sea fishing: skerry, anchor, hook, hook, proper names: Rurik, Oleg, Olga, Igor, Askold. In the official business speech of Ancient Russia, the now obsolete words vira, tiun, sneak, brand were used. From the Finno-Ugric languages, we borrowed the names of fish: whitefish, navaga, salmon, herring, shark, smelt, herring, as well as some words associated with the life of the northern peoples: sleigh, tundra, snowstorm, sledges, dumplings, etc.

Among the ancient borrowings are individual words from the Germanic languages: armor, sword, shell, cauldron, hill, beech, prince, boron, pig, camel and others. Scientists argue about the origin of some words, so the number of borrowings from the ancient Germanic languages ​​seems ambiguous to different researchers (from 20 to 200 words).

The close proximity of the Turkic peoples (Polovtsy, Pechenegs, Khazars), military clashes with them, and then the Mongol-Tatar invasion left Turkic words in the Russian language. They relate mainly to the nomadic life of these peoples, clothing, utensils: quiver, lasso, pack, hut, beshmet, sash, heel, pouch, kumach, chest, flail, shackles, bondage, treasury, guard, etc.

The most significant influence on the language of Ancient Russia was the influence of the Greek language. Kievan Rus carried on a lively trade with Byzantium, and the penetration of Greek elements into Russian vocabulary began even before the adoption of Christianity in Russia (VI century) and intensified under the influence of Christian culture in connection with the baptism of the Eastern Slavs (IX century), the distribution of liturgical books translated from Greek into Old Church Slavonic.

Greek in origin are many names of household items, vegetables, fruits: cherry, cucumber, doll, ribbon, tub, beet, lantern, bench, bath; words related to science, education: grammar, mathematics, history, philosophy, notebook, alphabet, dialect; borrowings from the field of religion: angel, altar, pulpit, anathema, archimandrite, antichrist, archbishop, demon, oil, gospel, icon, incense, cell, schema, icon lamp, monk, monastery, sexton, archpriest, memorial service, etc.

Later borrowings from the Greek language refer exclusively to the sphere of sciences and arts. Many Greekisms came to us through other European languages ​​and are widely used in scientific terminology that has received universal recognition: logic, psychology, pulpit, idyll, idea, climate, criticism, metal, museum, magnet, syntax, lexicon, comedy, tragedy, chronograph, planet, stage, stage, theater and so on.

The Latin language also played a significant role in the enrichment of Russian vocabulary (including terminology), associated mainly with the sphere of scientific, technical and socio-political life. The words ascend to the Latin source: author, administrator, audience, student, exam, external, minister, justice, operation, censorship, dictatorship, republic, deputy, delegate, rector, excursion, expedition, revolution, constitution, etc. These Latinisms came to our language, as well as to other European languages, not only through direct contact of the Latin language with any other (which, of course, was not excluded, especially through various educational institutions), but also through other languages. Latin in many European states was the language of literature, science, official papers and religion (Catholicism). Scientific writings up to the XVIII century. often written in Latin; medicine still uses Latin. All this contributed to the creation of an international fund of scientific terminology, which was mastered by many European languages, including Russian.

In our time, scientific terms are often created from Greek and Latin roots, denoting concepts unknown in the era of antiquity: astronaut [gr. kos-mos - Universe + gr. nautes - (sea) - swimmer]; futurology (lat. futurum - future + gr. logos - word, doctrine); scuba gear (Latin aqua - water + English lung - light). This is due to the exceptional productivity of Latin and Greek roots included in various scientific terms, as well as their international character, which facilitates the understanding of such foundations in different languages.

The later lexical influence of European languages ​​on Russian began to be felt in the 16th-17th centuries. and especially intensified in the Petrine era, in the XVIII century. The transformation of all aspects of Russian life under Peter I, his administrative and military reforms, the success of education, the development of science - all this contributed to the enrichment of Russian vocabulary with foreign words. These were numerous names of then new household items, military and naval terms, words from the field of science and art.

The following words were borrowed from the German language: sandwich, tie, decanter, hat, office, package, price list, percentage, accountant, bill, share, agent, camp, headquarters, commander, junker, corporal, gun carriage, cartridge belt, workbench, jointer, nickel, quartz, saltpeter, wolfral, potatoes, onions.

Maritime terms came from the Dutch language: shipyard, harbor, pennant, berth, drift, pilot, sailor, raid, yard, rudder, fleet, flag, fairway, skipper, navigator, boat, ballast.

Maritime terms were also borrowed from English: boat, brig, barge, schooner, yacht, midshipman. The influence of the English language turned out to be relatively stable: words penetrated from it into the Russian language throughout the entire 19th century. and later. So, words from the sphere of public relations, technical and sports terms, names of household items go back to this source: leader, department, rally, boycott, parliament, station, elevator, dock, budget, square, cottage, trolleybus, rail, mac, beefsteak , pudding, rum, whiskey, grog, cake, plaid, sweater, jacket, jacket, finish, sports, athlete, football, basketball, volleyball, boxing, croquet, poker, hockey, jockey, bridge, spinning, etc.

The French language left a significant mark in Russian vocabulary. The first gallicisms penetrated into it in the Petrine era, and then, at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, in connection with the gallomania of secular society, borrowings from the French language became especially popular. Among them are everyday words: suit, hood, corset, corsage, jacket, vest, coat, coat, blouse, tailcoat, bracelet, veil, jabot, floor, furniture, chest of drawers, study, sideboard, salon, toilet, dressing table, chandelier , lampshade, curtain, service, footman, broth, cutlet, cream, stew, dessert, marmalade, ice cream, etc.; military terms: vanguard, captain, sergeant, artillery, march, arena, cavalry, redoubt, attack, breach, battalion, salute, garrison, courier, general, lieutenant, dugout, recruit, sapper, cornet corps, landing force, fleet, squadron.

Many words from the field of art also date back to the French language: mezzanine, parterre, play, actor, prompter, director, intermission, foyer, plot, role, stage, repertoire, farce, ballet, genre, role, stage. All these words became the property of our language, therefore, there was a borrowing not only of names, but also of concepts necessary for the enrichment of Russian culture. Some French borrowings, reflecting the narrow circle of interests of an exquisite noble society, did not take root on Russian soil and fell into disuse: rendezvous, pleisir, politeness, and so on.

Some Italian words also came to us through the French language: baroque, carbonary, dome, mezzanine, mosaic, cavalier, pantaloons, gasoline, arch, barricade, watercolor, credit, corridor, bastion, carnival, arsenal, bandit, balcony, charlatan, basta , balustrade, etc.

Musical terms came from Italian to all European languages, including Russian: adagio, arioso, aria, viola, bass, cello, bandura, cappella, tenor, cavatina, canzone, mandolin, libretto, forte, piano, moderato, etc. The words harpsichord, ballerina, harlequin, opera, impresario, bravo also go back to the Italian source.

There are single borrowings from the Spanish language, which often penetrated into the Russian language through French mediation: alcove, guitar, castanets, mantilla, serenade, caramel, vanilla, tobacco, tomato, cigar, lemon, jasmine, banana.

Foreign borrowings include not only individual words, but also some word-forming elements: Greek prefixes a-, anti-, arches-, pan-: immoral, anti-perestroika, arch-absurd, pan-German; Latin prefixes: de-, counter-, trans-, ultra-, inter-. degradation, counterplay, trans-European, ultra-left, intervocalic; Latin suffixes: -ism, -ist, -or, -tor, etc. tailism, harmonist, combinator. Such prefixes and suffixes have become entrenched not only in the Russian language, they have become internationally widespread.

It should be noted that Russian words are also borrowed by other languages. Moreover, in different periods of our history, not only such Russian words as samovar, borscht, cabbage soup, cranberry, etc. penetrated into other languages, but such as satellite, soviets, perestroika, glasnost. The successes of the Soviet Union in space exploration contributed to the fact that the terms of this sphere born in our language were perceived by other languages. astronaut, lunar rover.

Mastering borrowed words in Russian

Foreign words, getting into our language, are gradually assimilated by it: they adapt to the sound system of the Russian language, obey the rules of Russian word formation and inflection, thus losing, to one degree or another, the features of their non-Russian origin.

First of all, foreign language features of the sound design of a word are usually eliminated, for example, nasal sounds in borrowings from French or combinations of sounds characteristic of the English language, etc. Then, non-Russian word endings and gender forms change. For example, in the words postman, prompter, pavement, sounds characteristic of the French language (nasal vowels, traced [r]) no longer sound; in the words rally, pudding there is no English back-lingual n, pronounced with the back of the back of the tongue (in transcription [*ng], in addition, the first of them has lost the diphthong; the initial consonants in the words jazz, gin are pronounced with a characteristic Russian articulation, although their combination is for us The Latin word seminarium turned into a seminary and then into a seminar, the Greek analogos into an'alogue, and analogikos into a similar one. not neuter, but feminine: beet.German marschierep receives the Russian suffix -ovat and is converted to march.

Acquiring word-building affixes, borrowed words are included in the grammatical system of the Russian language and obey the relevant norms of inflection: they form paradigms of declensions and conjugations.

Mastering borrowed words usually leads to their semantic changes. Most of the foreign words in the Russian language lose their etymological connections with the related roots of the source language. So, we do not perceive the German words resort, sandwich, hairdresser as words of a complex basis (resort from kurie-rep - “treat” + Ort - “place”; hairdresser - literally “making a wig”; sandwich - “butter” and “bread” )

As a result of deetymologization, the meanings of foreign words become unmotivated.

However, not all borrowings are assimilated by the Russian language to the same extent: there are those that have become so Russified that they do not reveal their foreign origin (cherry, notebook, party, hut, soup, cutlet), while others retain certain features of the original language, thanks to which they stand out in Russian vocabulary as alien words.

Among the borrowings there are words not mastered by the Russian language, which stand out sharply against the background of Russian vocabulary. A special place among such borrowings is occupied by exoticisms - words that characterize the specific features of the life of different peoples and are used to describe non-Russian reality. So, when depicting the life of the peoples of the Caucasus, the words aul, saklya, dzhigit, arba, etc. are used. Exoticisms do not have Russian synonyms, therefore, referring to them when describing national specifics is dictated by necessity.

Barbarisms are allocated to another group, i.e. foreign words transferred to Russian soil, the use of which is of an individual nature. Unlike other lexical borrowings, barbarisms are not recorded in dictionaries of foreign words, and even more so in dictionaries of the Russian language. Barbarisms are not mastered by the language, although over time they can gain a foothold in it. Thus, almost all borrowings, before entering the permanent vocabulary, were barbarisms for some time. For example, V. Mayakovsky used the word camp as barbarism (I am lying, - a tent in a camp), later the borrowing camping became the property of the Russian language.

Foreign-language inclusions in Russian vocabulary adjoin barbarisms: ok, merci, happy end, pater familias. Many of them retain non-Russian spelling, they are popular not only in ours, but also in other languages. In addition, the use of some of them has a long tradition, like alma mater.

Phonetic and morphological features of loanwords

Among the phonetic signs of borrowed words, the following can be distinguished.

1. Unlike native Russian words that never began with the sound [a] (which would be contrary to the phonetic laws of the Russian language), borrowed words have an initial a: questionnaire, abbot, paragraph, aria, attack, lampshade, arba, angel, anathema.
2. The initial e is distinguished mainly by Greekisms and Latinisms (Russian words never begin with this non-quoted sound): epoch, era, ethics, exam, execution, effect, floor.
3. The letter f testifies to the non-Russian source of the word, since the Eastern Slavs did not have the sound [f] and the corresponding graphic sign was used only to designate it in borrowed words: forum, fact, lantern, sofa, film, scam, form, aphorism, ether, profile and under.
4. The combination of two or more vowels in a word was unacceptable according to the laws of Russian phonetics, so borrowed words are easily distinguished by this feature (the so-called gaping): poet, halo, out, theater, veil, cocoa, radio, punctuation.
5. The consonances ge, ke, heh, which underwent phonetic changes in the original words, turned out to be possible in the borrowed words: cedar, hero, scheme, agent, ascetic.
6. The sequence of vowels and consonants, which is not characteristic of the Russian language, highlights borrowings in which the unfamiliar consonances of parachute, puree, communique, jeep, jury are transmitted by means of the Russian phonetic system.
7. A special phonetic feature of words of Turkic origin is vowel harmony (vowel harmonism) - the regular use of only one row of vowels in one word: back [a], [y] or front [e], [i]: ataman, caravan, pencil, shoe, lasso , chest, sundress, drum, heel, sash, ulus, mosque, beads.

Among the morphological features of borrowed words, the most characteristic is their immutability, the absence of inflections. So, some foreign nouns do not change by case, do not have correlative singular and plural forms: taxi, coffee, coat, beige, mini, maxi.

The word-building signs of borrowings include foreign prefixes: interval, deduction, individualism, regression, archimandrite, rear admiral, antichrist and suffixes: dean's office, student, technical school, editor, literature, proletariat, populism, socialist, polemize, etc.

Tracing

One of the methods of borrowing is tracing, i.e., building lexical units on the model of the corresponding words of a foreign language by accurately translating their significant parts or borrowing individual meanings of words. Accordingly, lexical and semantic tracings are distinguished

Lexical calques arise as a result of a literal translation into Russian of a foreign word in parts: a prefix, a root, a suffix with an exact repetition of the method of its formation and meaning. For example, the Russian word look is formed according to the German model aussehen as a result of tracing the prefix you = German aus-; verb stem – to look = German sehen. The words hydrogen and oxygen are tracing papers of the Greek hudor - "water" + genos - "kind" and oxys - "sour" + genos - "kind"; likewise the German Halbinsel served as the model for the peninsula tracing paper; the English sky-scraper in Russian has a tracing-paper skyscraper (cf. Ukrainian hmaroches). The following borrowings came to us through tracing: biography (gr. bios + grapho), superman (German über + Mensch); welfare (fr. bien+ktre), spelling (gr. orthos+grapho) and many others. Such tracing papers are also called derivational, more precisely lexical and derivational.

Semantic papers are original words that, in addition to their inherent meanings in the Russian lexical system, acquire new meanings under the influence of another language. For example, the Russian word picture, which means “work of painting”, “spectacle”, under the influence of the English language, was also used in the meaning of “film”. This is a tracing paper of the English polysemantic word picture, which has the following meanings in the source language: “picture”, “drawing”, “portrait”, “movie”, “shooting frame”.

Many semantic cripples from the French language were introduced by N. M. Karamzin: touch, touching, taste, refined, image, etc. Appeal to them at the beginning of the 19th century. was a distinctive feature of the "new style" developed by the Karamzin school and approved by Pushkin and his associates.

Lexical-derivative calquing was used when replenishing the Russian lexicon from Greek, Latin, German, French sources.

Another kind of borrowings are lexical half-calques - words that combine word-for-word translated foreign and Russian word-building elements. For example, the word humanity has the Latin root human-us, but the Russian suffix -ost is added to it (cf. humanism), or the Greek (tele) and Russian (vision-e) bases are combined in the compound word television.

Relation to borrowed words

In relation to borrowed words, two extremes often collide: on the one hand, a glut of speech with foreign words and phrases, on the other hand, their denial, the desire to use only the original word. At the same time, in polemics, they often forget that many borrowings have become completely Russified and have no equivalents, being the only names for the corresponding realities (remember Pushkin's: But pantaloons, tailcoat, vest - all these words are not in Russian ...). The lack of a scientific approach to the problem of mastering foreign language vocabulary is also manifested in the fact that its use is sometimes considered in isolation from the functional and stylistic consolidation of language means: it is not taken into account that in some cases the appeal to foreign book words is not stylistically justified, while in others it is necessary, since these words are an integral part of the vocabulary assigned to a certain style serving a particular area of ​​communication.

In different periods of the development of the Russian literary language, the assessment of the penetration of foreign language elements into it was ambiguous. In addition, with the activation of the process of lexical borrowing, the opposition to it usually intensifies. So, Peter I demanded from his contemporaries to write "as intelligibly as possible", without abusing non-Russian words. M.V. Lomonosov in his "theory of three calms", highlighting the words of various groups in the Russian vocabulary, did not leave room for borrowings from non-Slavic languages. And creating Russian scientific terminology, Lomonosov consistently sought to find equivalents in the language to replace foreign terms, sometimes artificially transferring such formations into the language of science. Both A.P. Sumarokov and N.I. Novikov opposed the clogging of the Russian language with French words that were fashionable at that time.

However, in the XIX century. the emphasis has shifted. Representatives of the Karamzin school, young poets led by Pushkin, had to fight for the use of lexical borrowings on Russian soil, since they reflected the advanced ideas of the French Enlightenment. It is no coincidence that tsarist censorship eradicated from the language such borrowed words as revolution, progress.

In the early years Soviet power the most urgent cultural and educational task was to familiarize the broad masses of the people with knowledge, the elimination of illiteracy. Under these conditions, prominent writers and public figures put forward the demand for the simplicity of the literary language.

In our time, the question of the appropriateness of using borrowings is associated with the assignment of lexical means to certain functional styles of speech. The use of foreign words that have a limited scope of distribution can be justified by the circle of readers, the stylistic affiliation of the work. Foreign terminological vocabulary is an indispensable means of concise and accurate transmission of information in texts intended for narrow specialists, but it can also be an insurmountable barrier to understanding a popular science text by an unprepared reader.

It is necessary to take into account the trend towards the creation of international terminology, emerging in our age of scientific and technological progress, common names for concepts, phenomena of modern science, production, which also contributes to the consolidation of borrowed words that have acquired an international character.

Questions for self-examination

1. What explains the replenishment of Russian vocabulary with foreign words?
2. What are the ways of penetration of lexical borrowings into the Russian language?
3. What lexical layers are distinguished in the Russian language depending on the origin of words?
4. What place do Old Slavonic words occupy in Russian vocabulary?
5. How are foreign words mastered by the Russian language?
6. By what phonetic and morphological signs can borrowed words be distinguished from the composition of the Russian vocabulary?
7. What are calques?
8. What types of cripples in Russian do you know?
9. What are the criteria for the use of foreign words in speech?

Exercises

24. Analyze the composition of the vocabulary in the text in terms of its origin. Highlight foreign words, noting the degree of their assimilation by the Russian language. Specify Old Slavonicisms. For reference, refer to etymological dictionaries and dictionaries of foreign words.

The southern facade of the Saltykovs' house faces the Field of Mars. Before the revolution, the current growing park was a huge square where parades of the troops of the Guards Corps took place. Behind it was the gloomy Engineering Castle with its gilded spire. Now the building is covered with old trees. In Pushkin's time they were only ten or three years old.

The façade of the embassy's mansion had not yet been damaged by the later addition of the fourth floor.

Eight windows face the Champ de Mars former apartment ambassadors, one of which is pledged; the extreme windows on the right and left are triple. In the middle of the floor, a glass door leads to a balcony, designed in strict proportions of the Alexander Empire style. Its massive cast-iron grate is very beautiful. The balcony was probably erected in 1819 at the same time as the entire third floor from the side of the Champ de Mars. ...Arriving in Leningrad, I asked permission to inspect the southern part of the third floor of the Institute of Culture.

Now here, basically, his library is located. Book wealth (at present more than three hundred thousand volumes) is already cramped in the enfilade of the former rooms of Countess Dolly ...

The five apartments overlooking the Champ de Mars are bright and invariably warm rooms. And in the most severe frosts it is never fresh here. The Countess's favorite camellias and her other flowers probably did well in these rooms even in the cloudy St. Petersburg winters. Darya Fyodorovna was also comfortable there, who, as we know, in some respects herself resembled a greenhouse flower.

In real terms, the countess, having lived for many years in Italy, at least in the first years after her arrival in St. Petersburg, could hardly endure domestic frosts. The very arrival of the northern winter oppressed her.

Having settled in the Saltykovs’ house, she writes down on October 1 of the same 1829: “Today the first snow fell - the winter, which will last for seven months, made my heart shrink: the influence of the north on a person’s mood must be very strong, because among such a happy existence like mine, I have to struggle with my sadness and melancholy all the time. I reproach myself for this, but I can’t do anything about it - beautiful Italy is to blame for this, joyful, sparkling, warm, which turned my first youth into a picture full of colors, comfort and harmony. She has thrown, as it were, a veil over the rest of my life, which will pass outside of her! Few people would understand me in this respect - but only a person brought up and developed in the south truly feels what life is and knows all its charm.

There are no words, the young ambassador, like a few, knew how to feel and love life. I only felt it - let's repeat - one-sidedly. So it was before, in Italy, and in the red drawing room of the Saltykovsky house, where, probably, she filled out the pages of her diary ... But it is difficult to walk through her former private rooms without excitement. Probably, they are no less than the front apartments of the embassy, ​​they were what has long been called the “salon of the Countess Ficquelmont”, where, according to P.A. Vyazemsky, "both the diplomats and Pushkin were at home."

(N. Raevsky.)

25. In sentences from the works of A. S. Pushkin, highlight Old Slavonicisms. Indicate their stylistic functions, name, where possible, Russian correspondences.

1. Leaning on an alien plow, submitting to scourges, here lean slavery drags along the reins of an inexorable owner. Here everyone drags a heavy yoke to the grave, not daring to feed hopes and inclinations in the soul, here young virgins bloom for the whim of an insensitive villain. 2. Fear, O army of foreigners! Russia's sons moved; both old and young arose; they fly at the bold, their hearts are kindled with vengeance. 3. I love rabid youth ... 4. ... There, under the shadow of the wings, my young days rushed by. 5. Listen to my sad voice... 6. I did not want to kiss the lips of the young Armides with such torment, or roses of fiery cheeks, or Persians full of languor... 7. It's time to leave the boring shore... 8. ...Fields ! I am devoted to you in soul. 9. But thank God! you are alive, unharmed... 10. Hello, young, unfamiliar tribe! 11. And I always considered you a faithful, brave knight... 12. I opened granaries for them, I scattered gold for them, I found work for them... 13. Neither power nor life amuse me... 14. Then - is not it? - in the desert, far from the vain rumors, you did not like me ... 15. I listened and listened - involuntary and sweet tears flowed.