Armor of the Romans. Armament and armor of ancient warriors. The main unit of the army of ancient Rome is the legion.

MUNICIPAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

"POLITOTDELSKY SECONDARY SCHOOL"

NIKOLAEVSKY MUNICIPAL DISTRICT OF VOLGOGRAD REGION

Research work

on this topic:"Clothes and weapons of the Roman legionnaire"

Ancient world history

Completed:

5th grade student

Volkov Evgeny

Supervisor:

Volkova L.N.,

teacher of history and social studies

With. Politotdelskoye - 2016

Content

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..2

1. The concept of "Roman legionnaire"……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Composition of the Roman army…………………………………………………….....5

2.1. Legionnaires……………………………………………………………………….5

2.2. Command staff…………………………………………………………....8

3. Clothing of Roman legionnaires…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Types of weapons used in the Roman army……………………………...16

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….20

List of sources and literature…………………………………………………22

Appendix…………………………………………………………………………24

Introduction

In the lessons of the history of the Ancient World, we got acquainted with the conquests of the Roman state. Thanks to these conquests, the state inIin. BC. and earlyIAD turned into a huge Roman Empire, which included the entire coast mediterranean sea, modern territory Western Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor. There is evidence that the Romans more than once tried to conquer the first Slavs, whom they called "Wends".

The fame and status of the "great" empire could only be achieved thanks to the faithful and brave warriors who carried on their shoulders all the burdens of long, distant and dangerous campaigns.

Camping trips are families left for a long time, living in the field, eating what grew and lived in these territories. What about clothes? After all, according to the territory, the climate also changed, which means that the clothes of a Roman soldier should be:

Convenient for long hikes;

Have protective equipment in case of cold weather or, falling under the rays of the hot sun, protect from scorching heat;

- and the most important thing - Reliable protection from enemy attacks.

In addition, I was interested in the question of arming the legionnaires. The ancient world knew the possibilities of metal processing, but did not know firearms. So the weapons of the Romans are iron products.

Relevance of the work: the moments that interested me in the organization of the Roman army made me want to learn more about the clothes and weapons of the Roman legionnaires, since the history textbook only tells about campaigns and conquests. After collecting information, I can introduce my classmates to these interesting facts, to visualize what a Roman legionnaire looked like.

Research problem lies in the opportunity to get acquainted not only with the conquests of the Roman army, but also with appearance Roman soldiers and with the types of weapons with which they obtained victories for the empire.

An object this work: Roman legionnaire, his appearance.

Subject this work: clothes and weapons of a Roman legionnaire.

Purpose of the study: learn about the appearance of the Roman legionnaire and his weapons.

To achieve the goal, a number oftasks:

Define the concept of "Roman legionnaire";

Consider the composition of the Roman army;

Study the clothes and weapons of a Roman legionnaire.

Research methods:

theoretical: literature analysisand sourceson research issue;

practical: collection andregistration of the received information in a folder - portfolio.

Stages of work on the project:

Studying the literature and collecting the necessary information on the chosen topic;

Analysis and structuring;

Folder design - portfolio;

Presentation of the finished work.

Practical significance: this work can be presented as additional information at the lessons of the history of the Ancient World, as well as at the competition of school design works.

Project product: newspaper "Roman legionnaire".

1. The concept of "Roman legionnaire"

The Roman legionary has its name from the name of the military branch in Ancient Rome.

Legion (lat. legio, genus p. legionis), (lat. legio, genus case legionis, from lego - I collect, recruit) - the main organizational unit in the army . The number of the legion at different times was about 3-8 thousand people. Initially, the legion was called the entire Roman army, which was a collection of armed citizens of Rome. This Roman "militia" (such is the original meaning of the word) was assembled only in time of war and for military training. The legion was assembled according to the curate principle, each clan ( ) fielded 100 warriors ( ) and 10 horsemen, thus the total number of the legion was 3300 people. A warrior who joined the ranks of the army was called -legionnaire (Fig. 1).

Fig.1

Roman horseman, 1st century AD e.
He sits in the saddle without stirrups, as they have not yet been invented.

2. The composition of the Roman army

2.1. Legionnaires

At the beginning of its existence, Rome was a city in which every man was a warrior. Citizens served either in the infantry or in the cavalry. Everything depended on the financial situation. Wealthier people mounted horses, and the poor became heavily armed soldiers on foot.

Subsequently military organization republics began to be based on universal conscription. Citizens from 17 to 46 years old were obliged, according to their list of centuries, to attend reviews or go on a campaign; sometimes, in war time and for senior officers, service was extended to 50 years. After 45 to 60 - served in the fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempted from service. Service life also changed over time.

Physical defects, as well as the performance of magistrate and priestly positions, were exempted from military service. An attempt to avoid military service without legal reasons entailed early sale into slavery, and later large fines and confiscation of property. Desertion, flight from the battlefield, etc., were already special military crimes and were almost always punished by exile or death.

At the beginning of the conquests, Rome gathered an army according to ranks on the basis of the qualifications presented (ie, the availability of property and financial condition).

But, pafter the victorious wars of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. All the peoples of Italy fell under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some nations more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law of divide and conquer.

And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:

a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry attached to them;

b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to Italians who joined the legion);

c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.

The main tactical unit was the legion.

The legion was divided into maniples (in Latin - a handful), centuriae (hundreds) and decuria (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, squads (Fig. 2).

Fig.2

Maniple structure:

Rice. 3

Light infantry -velites (literally - fast, mobile) walked ahead of the legion in loose formation and started a fight. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and to the flanks of the legion. In total there were 1200 people.

The first line of the legion -hastati (from the Latin "gasta" - a spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple.

Second line -principles (first) - 120 people in the maniple.

Third line -triarii (third) - 60 people in the maniple. The triarii were the most experienced and experienced fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: "It came to the triarii."

Rice. four

1 - Roman triarii, 2 - Roman hast, 3 - Roman velite.

Each maniple had two centuries. There were 60 people in the centurion of hastati or principes, and there were 30 people in the centurion of triarii.

The legion was given 300 horsemen, which amounted to 10 tours. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.

2.2. Command staff

In the days of the republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded in turn (Fig. 5). If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the head of the cavalry was subordinate, in contrast to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with individual parts of the army.

Separate legions were commanded by tribunes (Fig. 5). There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving up their place to the second pair, and so on. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each centuria was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. The centurions had the right to punish a soldier for misconduct.

In tsarist times, the king was the commander.

Fig.5

1 - Roman tribune, 2 - Roman standard-bearer, 3 - Roman consul.

So, having examined the composition of the Roman army, I learned that the Roman army was numerous with a complex military organization. Each category of troops had its own specific type of activity. And having become acquainted with the illustration, we can confidently assume that the type of their clothes and weapons also differed. We will study this in the next chapter.

3. Clothing of Roman legionnaires

The military affiliation of the soldiers was determined not by the uniform - the soldier's tunic and cloak differed little from civilian clothes - but by the military belt ("balteus") and shoes ("kaligi").

"Balteus" could take the form of a simple belt worn at the waist and decorated with silver or bronze plates, or two crossed belts tied at the hips. The time of appearance of such crossed belts is unknown. They could appear closer to the reign of Augustus, when additional protection appeared in the form of leather stripes on the sleeves and waist (“pterugs”) (metal linings for such stripes were found near Kalkrize, where Var was defeated). Probably, during the reign of Tiberius, blackening on silver, lead or copper began to be widely used in the manufacture of decorative belt overlays with a complex mosaic pattern. Such a belt was evidence of military status. In the sources there is a description of the soldiers as "armed and belted people." The deprivation of the "Balteus" meant for the soldier an exclusion from the military class. The belt was taken away from a soldier who dishonored himself. In Rome in 69 AD. there was a case when some pranksters, using sharply ground knives, cut off the belts from several soldiers in the crowd. When the soldiers realized what had happened, they flew into an indescribable rage and killed several civilians, including the father of one of the legionnaires.

Military shoes"kaligi" was another important attribute of belonging to the soldier class (Fig. 6). Exact time their introduction is unknown. They were the standard footwear for Roman soldiers from the reign of Augustus until the beginning of the 2nd century BC. AD These were sturdy sandals. The creak of nailed soles spoke of the presence of the soldiers as well as the tinkle of their belts. Archaeological finds throughout the empire testify to a great degree of standardization in the form of "kalig". This suggests that the models for them, and possibly other items of military equipment, were approved by the emperors themselves.

About the color of the militarytunic there was a lot of controversy (Fig. 7). References to centurions parading in white robes may indicate the use of linen tunics. It is also likely that in this case the color of the crests and “pterugs” was indicated. It is likely that centurions also wore woolen tunics dyed red, while lower-ranking officers wore white tunics.

Most of the legionnaires of the Empire period wore heavyarmor , although some types of troops did not use armor at all. Caesar used unarmoured legionaries ("expediti") fighting as "anti-signani". These were lightly armed legionnaires who started skirmishes at the start of a battle or served as reinforcements for the cavalry. On the relief from the building of the headquarters of the legionnaires (principles) in Mainz, two legionnaires are depicted fighting in close formation. They are armed with shields and spears, but do not have protective armor - even heavily armed legionaries could fight "expediti".

Rice. 6 "Caligi" and greaves (greaves)Fig.7 Roman toga and tunic.

There was no toe on the sandals, the skin was red.

Having considered Fig. 9 where showncenturion, we see him wearing what at first glance appears to be a tunic. However, cuts at the arms and thighs indicate that this is a chain mail shirt (“lorika hamata”), the cuts of which are necessary in order to facilitate the movement of a warrior. Many of these monuments depict details in the form of rings. Mail was probably the kind of armor that was widely used by the Romans. In the period we are considering, chain mail shirts were with short sleeves or without sleeves at all and could fall much lower than the hips. Most of the legionnaires wore chain mail with additional chain mail pads on the shoulders. Depending on the length and number of rings (up to 30,000), such chain mail weighed 9-15 kg. Chain mail with shoulder pads could weigh up to 16 kg. Usually chain mail was made of iron, but there are cases when bronze was used to make rings. Scale armor ("lorica squamata") was another common type, cheaper and easier to manufacture, but inferior to chain mail in strength and elasticity.

Such scaly armor was worn over a shirt with sleeves, probably made of canvas lined with wool. Such clothing helped soften blows and prevented metal armor from being pressed into the body of a legionnaire. “Pterugs” were often added to such attire - canvas or leather protective strips that covered the upper parts of the arms and legs. Such stripes could not protect from serious injuries. Until the end of the 1st century AD centurions could wear greaves, and even then, probably not in all cases (Fig. 6).

Rice. eight Fig.9

Helmet

Legionnaires used various types of helmets. During the Republic, bronze and sometimes iron helmets of the Montefortino type became widespread, which became the traditional helmets of legionnaires from the 4th century BC. BC. They consisted of a single bowl-shaped piece with a very small rear visor and side plates that covered the ears and sides of the face. Later versions of helmets, including the so-called "Culus" type, were used until the end of the 1st century BC. AD They were equipped with large plates to protect the neck.

Legionnaires' helmets were quite massive. The wall thickness reached 1.5 - 2 mm, and the weight was about 2 - 2.3 kg. Helmets and their side plates had felt pads, and some helmets were designed to leave a small space between the head and the canopy to cushion the impact. Montefortino helmets were equipped with wide side plates that completely covered the ears, but the new Gallic Imperial helmets already had cutouts for the ears. True, with the exception of those cases when helmets were made to order for a soldier, the side plates could partially cover the ears of a legionnaire. The side plates covered the sides of the face well, but could limit peripheral vision, and the open front of the face became a target for the enemy.

Fig.10 Fig.11

To attach the crest to the helmets, two holes were provided, in which special holders were fixed. Crests, most likely, were worn only for parades, and were rarely used in battles. The helmet itself was put on only before the battle, while on the march it was hung on leather straps on the warrior's chest.

Fig.12

Of all the uniforms of Roman soldiers, I would like to highlight the clothes of the Roman velite (Fig. 12). These warriors went ahead of the entire Roman army and caused a fight for themselves. The purpose of the velites was to throw darts at the enemy and quickly retreat behind the backs of well-protected infantry. They did not wear armor and chain mail, as protection they had a simple helmet and a round light . Some sources mention velites wearing wolf skins over their helmets so that their centurions could distinguish their soldiers when they retreated.Probably, from the head of a wolf was a symbol of reverence for the god Mars. This god in ancient Rome was not only the god of war, but was also considered the guardian of fields and herds from pests and wolves.

As for long hikes with climate change, in cold weather the legionnaire wore a cape with a hood.It is known that different raincoats were used on different occasions, and some of them were defined as only "military". For example, soldiers wore heavy military cloaks in winter, but wore light cloaks in summer. The soldiers did not take off their raincoats even during dinner, so as not to put their legs out. ATAll legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and high commanders were allowed to wear purple cloaks.

There were also pants.They were worn tucked into boots.Pants were mostly dark in color: gray or chocolate brown.

In the 2nd century, the wearing of boots spread. Socks came along with the boots.
There were some kind of tights in which the legs turned into socks.
Very popular shoes in the 3rd century were boots with lacing on the instep.

Thus, having examined the clothes of a Roman legionnaire, we can conclude that the clothes of a warrior on a campaign consisted of a tunic, armor or chain mail, a special belt and leather sandals. In winter, a cloak with a hood was thrown over, trousers or gaiters were put on, boots were put on their feet. The legionnaire's head was protected by a helmet during the battle. Such a few attire was of strategic importance - a warrior must move quickly and easily during the battle. But still, the bulk was made up of weapons, they were always with the soldiers.

4. Types of weapons used in the Roman army

From time immemorialshield the legionnaire had an oval curved scutum (scutum). Its origin is not entirely known, some researchers attributed its appearance to the Sabines, others to the Samnites. Be that as it may, at the beginning of the 1st c. the outlines of the scutum change somewhat: it becomes rectangular, but with rounded corners. Later, apparently, in the last quarter of the 1st century, the corners of the shield become straight.

The scutum was made from light aspen or poplar boards and covered first with linen, and then with cowhide, upholstered with copper or iron along the edges, and in the middle on the outside it had a metal convex lining - umbo. In the deepening of this overlay on the inside of the shield, the warrior could store small items, such as money, etc. The outer side of the overlay could be decorated with chasing or applied silver. Sometimes it depicted a personal emblem (amulet) of the owner of the shield. On the inside, there are records concerning the identity of the owner of the shield: his name, the number of the legion, perhaps the centuria, etc.The weight of the shield was not less than 5.5 kg.
The surface of the shield was decorated with drawings. Among the images there could be signs of the zodiac. Most likely, this sign denoted the astrological cycle in which the legion or auxiliary cohort was formed or the emperor who created them was born. The most famous depiction, the thunderbolts and spindles of Jupiter, most likely belongs to the Praetorian cohorts.

During the campaign and in the camp, in order to cover the shields from moisture, which had a destructive effect on the skin and wood, leather covers were used, which were removed before the battle. Flavius ​​Josephus describes how, under the walls of besieged Jerusalem, the future emperor Titus arranged a ceremony for the distribution of salaries and food to the soldiers: “According to the custom adopted in such cases, the army set out with open shields, which were usually covered with covers and fully armed. The surroundings of the city sparkled with a bright brilliance of gold and silver. The ceremony lasted for four whole days and made a rather strong impression on the besieged.

It must be said that the shield was used not only as a cover from enemy attacks, but also as an offensive weapon. During the training of soldiers, direct blows were practiced with the central convex lining of the shield, designed to unbalance the enemy, as well as blows with the edge of the shield.

Tooffensive weapons infantry included the sword, pilums and javelins.

Roman sword of the imperial period (gladius) is descended from a slightly longer than Roman, Spanish sword (gladius hispaniensis). After the Punic Wars, when the Iberian Peninsula was conquered, the Romans took advantage of the secrets of local gunsmiths, as a result of which their legions received this excellent weapon.

Gladius sword , whose name in our time has passed to a gladiolus flower similar in shape, in the first half of the 1st century it still had a long (50–56 cm) tapering blade. Later, the shape of the sword underwent some changes: both edges of its blade became parallel, and its pointed part became shorter. The total length of the blade has decreased to 44–55 cm.

At the beginning of the 1st century Legionnaires wore a baldric over the left shoulder, on which the scabbard of the sword was attached. Thus, the sword was located on the right, and the legionnaire could draw it without changing the position of the shield, which should always cover it as completely as possible.

In addition to the sword, the legionnaire hadcombat dagger (pugio). It was worn on the belt on the left side. Judging by the figures depicted on Trajan's column, by the end of the 1st century. the dagger was most likely not used by the legionnaires. But officers could wear it.

Around the 4th century BC e. throwing weapons legionnaires servedpilums (pilum) - a type of throwing spear. Each legionnaire had two of them. Initially, one of them was lighter and was intended for throwing over a longer distance. After the 80s. 1st century n. e. only heavy pilums were used.

The impact force of a skillfully thrown heavy pilum was large enough: it could break through the enemy's shield. Therefore, the tactics of the legionnaires were based on the fact that they threw pilums at the enemy's shields. The heavy tip got stuck, bent from the force of the blow (soft metal was used), the shaft pulled the enemy's shield down. Then the Romans, with swords in their hands, attacked the opponents, who could no longer take full advantage of the shields with the pilums pierced into them and most often threw the shield to the side, remaining without cover.

Traditionalthrowing weapon : sling, bow, dart - was the weapon of foreign warriors who served Rome.

The slingers, usually recruited in the Balearic Islands, had weaponsprash - double folded belt. For throwing, stones or lead bullets cast in the shape of an acorn were used.

The armament of the triarii, hastati and principes was the same: a shield, a sword, and only instead of pilums they used long spears - gasta.

Velites had a sword, darts and a round shield (parma, parma) about 90 cm in diameter. Darts, "gasta velitaris", were a smaller copy of the pilum; their iron part was 25 - 30 cm, and the wooden shaft was two cubits (about 90 cm) long and about a finger thick.

Thus, one can imagine what weight of combat equipment a Roman legionnaire had to carry.

On the march, this weight also increased due to his luggage, which included cooking utensils, a bag of provisions, spare clothes. All this property, the weight of which could exceed 13 kg, was placed in a leather bag with ropes and carried with the help of a T-shaped pole on the shoulder. If necessary, the legionnaire also had to carry all the equipment for earthworks. This included a pickaxe, an axe, a saw, a chain, a leather belt, and a basket for carrying earth. During the time of Julius Caesar, he made sure that a certain part of the legionnaires during the campaign was not burdened with cargo and could quickly react in the event of an enemy attack.

So, the armament of a Roman soldier is not only a military weapon, but also everything a warrior needs to protect his body, and everything he needs to survive on a long, distant campaign (Appendix).

Conclusion

For many centuries, the Roman army was rightfully considered one of the strongest in the world. Moreover, its combat effectiveness did not fall, despite any political conflicts. main role, of course, warriors played - legionnaires, ready to sacrifice themselves in the interests of the state. But a good warrior must correspond to his position, i.e. his military organization, weapons and clothing should be his assistants in military affairs.

The problem of this study was not only to get acquainted with the Roman warrior as a conqueror, but also to get acquainted with his appearance and weapons, with which he won victory for the empire.

Based on the purpose and objectives, it was determined that the legionnaire received his name from the name of the organization of the Roman army - the legion.

The legion was divided into maniples (a handful), centuries (hundreds), decuria (tens). And also divided into warriors - legionnaires and command staff. The troops of the legionnaires consisted of velites, who went first and caused a fight on themselves, hastati - spearmen, principles and, the most experienced warriors, triarii.

But the main task of the study was to study the clothes and weapons of the Roman legionnaire. Expanding this problem, it was found that:

The main everyday wear was a tunic;

A military belt was put on the waist - "balteus";

At the beginning of the Imperial era, around 1 AD, a Roman legion consisted of about 5,000 heavy infantry and a small cavalry unit of 120 cavalry. Typically, Roman legions also had an equal number of archers, cavalry, or light infantry attached as support troops, recruited from among the populations of the Roman provinces. In contrast, legionnaire recruitment took place exclusively among the citizens of Rome. The legions also accompanied the convoys with food and tools for the construction of protected camps, and thus the total number of the legion reached about 11,000 people.

Weapon

The equipment of the legionnaires included not only a variety of weapons and armor, but also tools and everyday utensils. The soldiers mainly had two types of attacking weapons: numerous spears, the so-called pilums, and a gladius, a short sword.

Pilum

The length of the Imperial era pilum was approximately 2.10 meters, 90 cm of which is an iron tip. In battle, pilums were thrown towards the enemy's battle formations from a fairly short distance. Caesar describes the effect of the use of pilums as follows: “... One spear often pierced two overlapping shields, binding them together, (...). Since their hands were now so heavy that they could not fight normally, (…) they got rid of their shields and preferred to fight without protection.

“Gladius, Roman short sword (original find and copy)”

The sword of the legionnaires, the gladius, was a double-edged weapon, approximately 60 cm long and 5 cm wide. It was usually used for striking at close range. Later, during the heyday of the Empire, the legions began to use the spatu, the long sword, primarily as a club.

Roman shield in action

The scutum, a large Roman shield with curved edges for better protection of the body, was used as protective equipment. It was made of thin wood fitted and joined together, reinforced with an iron or bronze frame. In the center of the shield was a cone, and on the opposite side - a handle. The front part was covered with leather and decorated with silver and bronze ornaments in the form of lightnings of Jupiter.

The shields of the cohorts had different colors to make it easier to distinguish them on the battlefield. In addition, the names of the owner and centurion of the cohort were applied to the shields. During forced marches, the shield was carried on a belt over the shoulder.

clothing

The soldiers wore a linen tunic (underwear) and a short-sleeved woolen tunic that went down to the knees in front. The legs of the men were left bare, here protection was sacrificed for greater mobility. The wearing of trousers (lat. bracae) was considered alien and inappropriate for Roman men, although in cold regions legionnaires were allowed to wear long underpants made of wool or leather that ended just below the knee.

Legionnaires' shoes were different high quality and skillful work, mainly heavy sandals with multi-layered soles were used. Sandals were tied with straps in the center of the tibia, and legionnaires could put wool or fur in cold clothes.

Armor

Armor has changed over the years. Different kinds armor could be used at the same time. At the turn of the 1st-2nd centuries, legionnaires mostly wore chain mail. Later, they also protected themselves in battle with the "lorica segmentata" - this was an elaborate armor consisting of many overlapping metal plates that were connected to each other by leather straps from the inside so as not to affect mobility. The shoulders were also protected by various kinds of curved plates, and the back and chest were covered with a connected breastplate. The armor could be assembled in one piece and laced up in front, and at the same time it was still easy to disassemble into separate segments for cleaning and repair.

“Legionnaires circa 70 AD.”

From the year 100, scale armor appears, which at first was used only by elite soldiers from the Praetorian Guard. Legionnaires received similar equipment much later. All three types of armor were still in use during the reign of Emperor Constantine the Great.

The head was protected by a specially designed helmet, which consisted of a metal dome with attached neck and face protection. On both sides of the helmet there was protection for the cheeks. Legionnaires wound a scarf around the neck so that the iron elements of the helmet do not damage the skin.

Helmet of the Centurion

Around the waist they wore a wide belt, in some cases exquisitely decorated with metal plates. An apron made of leather straps with riveted plates was attached in front. It dangled freely when moving, and was presumably used mainly as a decorative element, although in certain circumstances it could provide a little additional protection to the lower abdomen and genitals. A dagger, the so-called “pugio”, was attached to the side of the belt.

“Works on the construction of fortifications on Trajan’s Column”

Roman Hatchet

Field inventory

In addition to weapons and armor, each legionnaire had an ax on his belt, the sharp blade of which was protected by a leather sheath. The legionnaire's standard equipment also included a saw, a wicker basket for dredging, a piece of rope or a long leather belt, and a sickle. In the campaign, the legionnaire carried these items on a special stick, which was called “pilum murale”. In the later years of the existence of the Empire, part of this inventory was loaded onto wagons in carts and accompanied by troops. The heaviest and bulkiest items of equipment for legionnaires were the so-called "papilio" - leather tents. They were transported on horsebacks along with two millstones for grinding grain.

Centurion gear

As a rule, the centurion had a bright extraordinary appearance, allowing him to stand out from the crowd of ordinary people. He wore a shirt with leather, mail, or scale armor and metal pauldrons, as well as an ornate belt. Below the waist, the centurions wore a double-pleated kilt-like skirt, and metal greaves were attached to their legs. A cloak with elegant folds hung from the left shoulder. The sword also hung on the left.

Trajan, who ruled in Rome from 98 to 117 AD, went down in history as a warrior emperor. Under his leadership, the Roman Empire reached its maximum power, and the stability of the state and the absence of repression during his reign allowed historians to deservedly consider Trajan the second of the so-called "five good emperors." The contemporaries of the emperor would probably agree with this assessment. The Roman Senate officially proclaimed Trajan "the best ruler" (optimus princeps), and subsequent emperors were guided by him, receiving parting words during the accession "to be more successful than Augustus, and better than Trajan" (Felicior Augusto, melior Traiano). During the reign of Trajan, the Roman Empire conducted several successful military campaigns and reached largest sizes throughout its history.

The equipment of the Roman legionnaires during the reign of Trajan was distinguished by functionality. The centuries-old military experience accumulated by the Roman army was harmoniously combined in it with the military traditions of the peoples conquered by the Romans. We invite you to take a closer look at the weapons and equipment of a Roman legionary infantryman of the early 2nd century AD in the Warspot interactive special project.

Helmet

As early as the beginning of the 1st century AD, Roman gunsmiths on the Upper Rhine, taking as a basis the Celtic helmet model that had previously existed in Gaul, began to make combat headpieces with a deep solid forged iron dome, a wide backplate to protect the neck, and an iron visor in front, additionally covering the face from those applied from above chopping blows, and large cheek-pieces, equipped with chased ornaments. On the front, the dome of the helmet was decorated with chased ornaments in the form of eyebrows or wings, which allowed some researchers to attribute the first such helmets to the warriors of the Lark Legion (V Alaudae), recruited by Julius Caesar among the Romanized Gauls.

One more feature helmets of this type were cutouts for the ears, closed on top with bronze lining. Bronze decorations and onlays are also characteristic, which look very effective against the background of the light surface of the helmet's polished iron. Elegant and extremely functional, this type of helmet of the Gallic series by the end of the 1st century became the predominant model of the battle headgear in the Roman army. According to his model, weapons workshops located in Italy, as well as in other provinces of the Roman Empire, began to forge their products. An additional feature that appeared, apparently, during the Dacian wars of Trajan, was an iron cross, which began to reinforce the dome of the helmet from above. This detail was supposed to give even greater strength to the helmet and protect it from the blows of the terrible dac scythes.

Plate armor

The reliefs of Trajan's Column, erected in Rome in 113 to commemorate the conquest of Dacia, depict legionnaires dressed in plate armor, the so-called. lorica segmentata, while auxiliaries infantry and cavalry wear mail or scale armor. But such a division is certainly not true. Contemporary reliefs of the Trajan's Trophy Columns at Adamiklissia depict legionnaires dressed in chain mail, and archaeological finds of pieces of plate armor in the frontier forts occupied by auxiliary units indicate that the soldiers in these units wore lorica.

The name lorica segmentata is a modern term for the name of the plate armor, known from numerous images of the 1st-3rd centuries. Its Roman name, if any, remains unknown. The oldest finds of plates of this armor come from excavations near Mount Kalkriese in Germany, identified as the site of a battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Thus its appearance and distribution date back to the final stage of the reign of Augustus, if not earlier. Various points of view have been expressed regarding the origin of this type of armor. Some derive it from the solid armor worn by the Gallic gladiators crupellari, others see it as an oriental development, better adapted to hold the arrows of the Parthian archers in comparison with traditional chain mail. It is also unclear the extent to which plate armor was distributed in the ranks of the Roman army: whether soldiers wore it everywhere or only in some separate special units. The degree of distribution of finds of individual parts of the armor rather testifies in favor of the first hypothesis, however, there can be no question of the uniformity of protective weapons in the style of images of the reliefs of Trajan's Column.

In the absence of real finds, many different hypotheses were put forward about the structure of plate armor. Finally, in 1964, during excavations of the border fort in Corbridge (Britain), two well-preserved pieces of armor were found. This allowed the British archaeologist H. Russell Robinson to reconstruct the lorica segmentata of the late 1st century, as well as to draw certain conclusions about the structure of the armor of a later period, previously found during excavations at Newstead. Both armor belonged to the so-called laminar type of armor. Horizontal stripes, slightly funnel-shaped, were riveted on the inside of a leather belt. The plates overlapped slightly on top of each other and formed an extremely flexible metal coating for the hull. Two semicircular sections made up the right and left parts of the armor. With the help of straps, they were fastened on the back and chest. A separate composite section was used to cover the upper chest. With the help of straps or hooks, the bib was connected to the corresponding side half. From above, flexible shoulder pads were attached to the breastplate. To put on the armor, it was necessary to put your hands into the side cutouts and fasten it on your chest, as you fasten a vest.

Plate armor was strong, flexible, light and at the same time very reliable means of protection. In this capacity, he existed in the Roman army from the beginning of the 1st to the middle of the 3rd century AD.

Bracers

On the reliefs of Trajan's Trophy at Adamiklissi, some Roman soldiers wear bracers to protect their forearms and hands. This piece of equipment is of oriental origin and is a vertical row of plates riveted on the inside to a belt in the full length of the arm. In the Roman army, this type of protective equipment was used quite rarely, however, judging by the images, it was worn by gladiators. When Trajan's troops began to suffer heavy losses from the blows of the Dacian braids, he ordered to protect the hands of his soldiers with the same armor. Most likely, this was a short-term measure, and in the future this piece of equipment did not take root in the army.

Sword

In the middle - second half of the 1st century, a sword with a blade 40–55 cm long, 4.8 to 6 cm wide and with a rather short edge became widespread in the Roman army. Judging by the proportion of the blade, it was mainly intended for cutting the enemy, who did not wear protective armor. Its shape already very vaguely resembled the original gladius, hallmark which was a long and thin point. These modifications of weapons corresponded to the new political situation on the borders of the empire, whose enemies from now on were the barbarians - Germans and Dacians.

Legionnaires carried a sword in a frame scabbard. On the front side, they were decorated with bronze cut-out plates with geometric patterns and figured images. The scabbard had two pairs of clips, on the sides of which side rings were attached. Through them passed the end of the belt, split in two, on which the scabbard with the sword was hung. The lower end of the belt was passed under the belt and connected to the lower ring, the upper end passed over the belt to the upper ring. Such a mount provided a secure fixation of the scabbard in a vertical position and made it possible to quickly draw the sword without holding the scabbard with your hand.

Dagger

On the left side on the waist belt, the Roman legionnaires continued to wear a dagger (not visible in the illustration). Its wide blade was forged from iron, had a stiffening rib, symmetrical blades and an elongated point. The length of the blade could reach 30-35 cm, width - 5 cm. The dagger was worn in a frame sheath. The front side of the scabbard was usually richly inlaid with silver, brass or decorated with black, red, yellow or green enamel. The scabbard was hung from the belt with a pair of belts passed through two pairs of side rings. With such a suspension, the handle was always directed upwards, and the weapon was constantly ready for combat use.

Pilum

On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, Roman legionaries carry a pilum, which at this time retains its significance as a first-strike weapon. Judging by the archaeological finds, its design has not changed since earlier times.

Some soldiers, who were distinguished by great physical strength, supplied the shaft of the pilum with spherical lead nozzles, which increased the weight of the weapon and, accordingly, increased the severity of the blow inflicted by it. These attachments are known from pictorial monuments II – III centuries, but among the real archaeological finds have not yet been found.

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Shield

At the end of the 1st century BC, the oval shield, known from the images of the era of the Republic, straightened the upper and lower faces, and by the middle of the century, the side faces also became straight. The shield thus acquired a quadrangular shape, known from the reliefs on Trajan's Column. At the same time, oval-shaped shields, known from images of an earlier time, continued to be in use.

The design of the shield remained the same as before. Its dimensions, judging by the proportions of the figures of warriors, were 1 × 0.5 m. These figures are in good agreement with archaeological finds of a later time. The base of the shield was made of three layers of thin wooden planks glued at right angles to each other. The thickness of the wood, judging by the surviving rivets of the umbons, was about 6 mm.

From the outside, the shield was covered with leather and richly painted. The depicted scenes included laurel wreaths, lightning bolts of Jupiter, as well as emblems of individual legions. Along the perimeter, the edges of the shield were upholstered with bronze clips so that the tree would not chip from the blows of enemy swords. In the hand, the shield was held by the handle formed by a transverse wooden plank. In the center of the field of the shield, a semicircular cut was made, into which the brush holding the handle was inserted. Outside, the cutout was closed with a bronze or iron umbon, which, as a rule, was richly decorated with engraved images. The weight of a modern reconstruction of such a shield was approximately 7.5 kg.

Tunic

The soldier's tunic has not changed much since previous times. As before, it was cut from two rectangular pieces of woolen fabric about 1.5 × 1.3 m, sewn on the sides and at the neck. The cutout for the head and neck remained wide enough so that during field work, for greater freedom of movement, soldiers could lower one of her sleeves, completely exposing the right shoulder and arm. At the waist, the tunic was gathered in folds and girded with a belt. A high-belted tunic that opened the knees was considered a sign of the military.

In the cold season, some soldiers wore two tunics, while the lower one was made of linen or fine wool. The Romans did not know any specific statutory color of clothing. Most of the soldiers wore tunics made of undyed wool. Those who were richer could wear tunics of red, green or blue. In ceremonial conditions, officers and centurions dressed in bright white tunics. To decorate tunics, two strips of bright color were sewn on their sides - the so-called claves. The usual cost of tunics was 25 drachmas, and this amount was deducted from the soldier's salary.

Pants

The Romans, like the Greeks, considered trousers an attribute of barbarism. In the cold season, they wore woolen windings on their legs. Short pants to protect the skin of the thighs from horse sweat were worn by Gallic and German horsemen, who had served in the Roman army en masse since the time of Caesar and Augustus. In the cold season, they were also worn by the foot soldiers of the auxiliary troops, also recruited from among the non-Romanized subjects of the empire.

The legionnaires depicted on Trajan's Column still do not wear trousers, but Emperor Trajan himself and senior officers who rode for a long time are depicted wearing narrow and short breeches. During the first half of the 2nd century, the fashion for these clothes spread among all categories of troops, and on the reliefs of the Column of Marcus Aurelius, short trousers are already worn by all categories of troops.

Tie

On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, soldiers are depicted with ties. Their function is to protect the upper part of the tunic from friction and damage caused by armor. Another purpose of the tie is clarified by its late name "sudarion", which comes from the Latin sudor - "sweat".

Penula

AT inclement weather or in the cold season, soldiers wore cloaks over their clothes and armor. Penula was one of the most common raincoat models. It was woven from coarse sheep or even goat wool. The civilian version of the cloak, called lacerna, had a finer dressing. The shape of the penula resembled a half oval, the straight sides of which closed in front and were fastened with two pairs of buttons.

On some sculptural images, the incision is missing. In this case, the penula, like a modern poncho, had the shape of an oval with a central hole and was worn over the head. To protect against the weather, she was supplied with a deep hood. In a civilian lacerne, such a hood, as a rule, was attached. The length of the penula reached the knees. Being wide enough, it allowed the soldiers to freely operate with their hands without removing their cloak. On frescoes and color images, the military cloak is usually brown.

Kaligi

The soldier's shoes were heavy boots of the Kaliga. The shoe blank was cut from one piece of thick bovine leather. The toes in the shoe remained open, and the straps covering the sides of the foot and ankle were cut through, which provided good ventilation to the legs.

The sole consisted of 3 layers stitched with each other. For greater strength, it was nailed from below with iron nails. It took 80–90 nails to tamp one shoe, while the weight of a pair of caligas reached 1.3–1.5 kg. The nails on the sole were located in a certain pattern, reinforcing those parts of it that wore out more during the campaign.

According to the observations of modern reenactors, nailed shoes were worn well on dirt roads and in the field, but in the mountains and on the cobblestones of city streets they slid over stones. In addition, the nails on the sole gradually wore out and required constant replacement. One pair of caligas was enough for about 500-1000 km of the march, while every 100 km of the way, 10 percent of the nails had to be changed. Thus, in two or three weeks of march, the Roman legion lost about 10 thousand nails.

Belt

The belt was an important part of the men's clothing of the Romans. Boys wore a belt as a sign of coming of age. The military wore wide leather belts, which distinguished them from civilians. The belt was worn over the armor and richly decorated with bronze relief or engraved overlays. For a decorative effect, the lining was sometimes covered with silver and provided with enamel inserts.

Roman belts of the late 1st century BC - early 2nd century AD had a kind of apron of 4-8 belts, covered with bronze overlays and ending with terminal ornaments. Apparently, this detail performed a purely decorative function and was worn for the sake of the sound effect it created. A dagger was hung from the belt, sometimes a purse with small money. The Romans usually wore a sword on a shoulder harness.

Leggings

Leggings were part of the protective armor that covered the legs from the knee to the instep of the foot, that is, they covered that part of them that was not usually covered by a shield. Officers and centurions on the monuments of the 1st-2nd centuries were often depicted in greaves, the wearing of which was something like a symbol of their rank. Their greaves were decorated with chasing with the image of the head of Medusa in the knee part, the side surface was decorated with tufts of lightning and floral ornaments. On the contrary, ordinary soldiers were usually depicted without greaves at this time.

During the era of the Dacian Wars, greaves returned to military equipment to protect the legs of soldiers from the blows of the Dacian scythes. Although the soldiers in the reliefs of Trajan's Column do not wear greaves, they are present in the depictions of Trajan's Trophy at Adamclisi. Roman soldiers in reliefs wear one or two greaves. This detail of military equipment is also present in the sculptures and frescoes of a later period. Archaeological finds of leggings are simple iron plates 35 cm long, with a longitudinal stiffener, devoid of any decor. They cover the leg only up to the knee; perhaps a separate piece of armor was used to protect the knee itself. For fastening on the leg, the leggings are equipped with four pairs of rings through which a belt was passed.

The appearance of the first armor occurred long before the advent of war and military affairs. Armor is often associated with metal, but leather and cloth were much more common materials. Stone Age people first learned how to make simple armor from animal skins, which became the prototype of the first leather and fabric armor. Animal skins protected people not only from the cold, but also from the sharp claws and teeth of predators who attacked during the hunt. Of course, such armor could not save the hunter from serious wounds, but people learned to sew durable clothes from animal skin that covered the entire body. With the advent of the first melee weapon - a sharp knife, a dagger, a battle ax, and a ranged weapon - a throwing spear, arrows with metal tips, it was necessary to take care of a more reliable protection of the warrior. First of all, the warrior needed a reliable helmet, shield, chest leather armor.

Ancient warriors of the Crete-Mycenaean civilization

The period of the first civilizations marked the beginning of the era of wars between new states, an army appeared and weapons were improved.
In ancient times warriors of the Minoan civilization of Crete wore bone horned helmets, were armed with spears and shields. Bronze double-edged short swords of this period had thin blade about 80 cm long, around the 9th century BC for the manufacture of swords began to use iron, the blade began to be made wider and shorter.

People learned to process not only fabric, skin and bones of animals, but also metal, in the Bronze Age it became possible to create military armor that gives the warrior real protection. Leather armor, as well as fabric armor, were considered light armor, but they were not abandoned even in the era of heavy knightly armor. They learned to process metal a very long time ago, but truly strong and heavy armor appeared only in the late Middle Ages.

Ancient Hellas, the successor of the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization , in many ways improved the methods of war and military weapons. The duty of a citizen of any free ancient Greek policy was to carry military service, they had to take care of their weapons themselves.

Ancient Greek hoplite warriors (ancient Greek ὁπλίτης) were heavy infantry armed with heavy (about 8 kg.) round "Argive" shields - hoplon (ancient Greek ὅπλον), who protected the warrior from the neck to the knees. The first hoplite warriors appeared in the Spartan army. Hoplites during the war, citizens with average incomes became, they could provide themselves with weapons and equipment at their own expense. The best armies Greek policies consisted of wealthy citizens, heavily armed infantry hoplites, united in phalanxes.

light infantry in Ancient Greece was called – peltasts (other Greek πελταστής), who were the skirmishers of the battle, they threw darts at the enemy. Peltasty were called by the name of the shield - pelta (ancient Greek πελτα) - a light leather shield used by the Thracian infantry-velites (peltasts), having the shape of a crescent. A shield-pelta was made from light wood, or wickerwork from reeds, vines.

Sling - throwing edged weapons used by the slingers of Assyria, Persia, Greece, Rome and Carthage. The sling consisted of a rope or belt, with a loop at the end where the slinger's brush was threaded. In the center of the sling, a stone or metal projectile was inserted.

Lead sling bullets with the inscription - "Catch". 4th century BC

The slinger rotated the sling with the projectile in a horizontal or vertical plane, intensifying circular movements, and at the moment of the strongest swing released the free end of the sling and the projectile flew out of the sling at high speed. Although the bow was a more accurate weapon, slingers with metal projectiles were valued more than archers, since projectile lead bullets retained more destructive power.

Xiphos (other Greek ξίφος) a straight double-edged short sword with a leaf-shaped blade about 60 cm long. Borrowed by the Hellenes from the Scythians. The Scythian way of burial was borrowed by the Greeks. (McPherson's Antiquities of Kertch, 1857)

Scythian warriors.

In the Northern Black Sea region before the arrival of the ancient Greeks there lived many tribes related in language, religion, culture, having a common style of fine art, which modern art historians call the "animal style". The ancient Greeks who founded on the shores (Black Sea) colonies, collided with local tribes and did not at all distinguish the features of these tribes, and therefore, all strangers who did not speak Greek and lived outside of Greece, they called barbarians. The Greeks called the nomads and tillers of the Northern Black Sea region Scythians, and their vast territories of residence - Scythia.

The name "Scythian" comes from the Greek oh words "xiphos" - ξιφωζ - thorn as the Greeks called it short scythian sword 60 cm long.- a formidable Scythian weapon in hand-to-hand combat. Scythian blade, short sword, the Scythians called akinak, and in Greek blade -σπαθί - "save".

Scythian warriors were armed with powerful a new type of bow , made of several layers of wood and tendons. Scythian bow was much more powerful than a regular wooden bow, as the different layers of wood increased the power and impact force fired from bow of a Scythian arrow with a trihedral tip.

In equestrian combat, the Scythians used squads of archers who fired hundreds of deadly arrows at the same time for several minutes. At the end of the 6th century A.D. e. Byzantine writer described the deadly power of the mounted Scythian archers, who did not stop fighting until the enemy was completely destroyed.

The weapon of the Scythians, who fought on foot, was a battle ax with a narrow long sharp blade - an ax (labrys). In hand-to-hand combat, the Scythian foot soldiers fought as bravely and fiercely as the Scythian riders.

Despite the fact that in these times the processing of bronze reached a very high level, bronze armor was not as popular as cloth, they cost a lot of money.

Into the armor Scythian warrior included a shield with armored coating. The width of the Scythian shield is 93 cm, in the lower part (in the middle) it is divided by a cutout 17 cm long, 10 cm wide. Such a shield was very convenient for the rider end of the 5th - beginning of the 4th centuries. BC.

Scythian rounded helmet with a small cone on the crown, the prototype of the ancient Russian helmet.

Scythian armor represents sleeveless leather shirt fastening on the right beck (kosovorotka). The front part of the armor is tailored so that the shoulder parts, separated by the neckline, go forward in the form long stripes-shoulders with a plate set. The shoulders covered not only the shoulder, but also the forearm, they were attached to the back of the armor with the help of iron laces and laces. The iron plates of the set are sewn onto the leather base in horizontal rows from bottom to top. in such a way that the right edge of each plate moved over the left edge of the adjacent one, resulting in a continuous coating that did not allow clearance when the base was stretched at the kinks. The armor left room for body movements, providing the warrior with the maximum possible mobility. The front of the armor reaches only to the waist, that is, it is cut out for the rider. In the lower part of the hem of the armor there are two burrs, to which they were attached with the help of laces. pants that served as legguards and leggings (length 60 cm, width 30 cm), the pants were rectangular pieces of leather with a lamellar set. They were wrapped around the legs and connected from the inside. There was no plate set in the knee area, for the convenience of controlling the horse.

Ancient Greek warriors.

In addition to the shield the Greek hoplite wore a helmet, Two types of ancient Greek helmets are known. Corinthian helmet fully closed with cutouts for eyes and mouth, has a T-shape. The helmet was often decorated with a short horse mane.

Illyrian helmet did not cover the face of the warrior, and did not have protection for the nose, the ears of the warrior were also open, the warrior received best review, and this made it easier and more convenient than Corinthian. Subsequently, the Corinthian helmet changed and became more similar to the Illyrian one.

Linnothorax - combat armor made of several layers of dense fabric, most often used by hoplites, as well as light infantry and cavalry. Linnothorax did not hamper the movement of a warrior, relying in battle on his strength, agility and speed of movement. Bronze armor was called hippothorax , they repeated the anatomical pattern of the muscles. Ancient warriors wore bracers and greaves, protecting arms and legs from injury. Scaled armor did not gain a foothold in the ancient Greek army, apparently due to their heaviness, which hindered the movement of the war and a very hot climate, because of the heat, the metal of the armor was heated.

In ancient Egypt due to the unbearable heat and the high cost of making even cloth armor, ordinary soldiers almost never wore armor. The Egyptians used a shield and wore traditional Egyptian wigs, which were made of hard leather and adorned with bone or bronze pieces. A helmet and skillful possession of a shield softened the blow of an ax, mace or club. Bronze axes and swords were the weapons of wealthy warriors and military leaders, ordinary soldiers were armed with a shield, a spear and a short blade. For many years of excavations in Egypt, almost not a single metal shell was found, which indicates the high cost of its production and, possibly, low efficiency. The Egyptian army, and many armies of the ancient era, had cavalry and chariots. All noble, well-trained warriors fought by archery and moving in a chariot acting as mobile cavalry. The accuracy of archery during the fast movement of the chariot required considerable skill, such noble warriors on chariots were valued and they wore cloth or leather armor.

Roman army is a kind of continuation and development of the ideas of the phalanx. At this time, the Iron Age begins. Combat armor made of bronze and fabric is replaced by iron, Roman legionaries are armed with short swords, helmets and massive shields that allow them to come close to the enemy, strike and break the formation. In the Iron Age, the sword becomes more durable and longer, there is a need for armor that could effectively stop slashing blows. The spear was the weapon of the hoplite and many armies of this time.

So the heavy armor of the hoplite is replaced chain mail – Lorica hamata. Mail is not very effective against a spear, but can stop a slashing blow from a sword or axe. Legions often fought tribes that were out of order , many barbarians from the north were armed with axes, a reliable shield was needed to protect against slashing weapons.

Large growth (tower) ancient Roman shield with a central handle and umbon, called scutum (lat. scutum), was common in Italy in the Bronze Age. Roman shield had only one horizontal handle in the center.

SCUTUM - is the predecessor of the oval shieldauxilium *, which began to supplant the scutum from about the 2nd century. Auxilium (Latin auxilia) - auxiliary unit of the ancient Roman army, recruited from foreigners.

scutum among the Etruscans. In Etruria , near Vetulonia, in one of the graves of the necropolis of Poggio alla Tuardia, VIII century BC. e., a sculptural image of a shield-scutum was found. Around the beginning of the 4th century BC. e. began to be used by Roman legionnaires instead of the Argive hoplite shield
Later, from the Romans, this type of shield was adopted by the Celts, Iberians and Illyrians.

The loss shield for Roman a warrior was considered a shame no less than the loss of a sword.

The Roman scutum from the time of the Republic measured about 75 cm wide, about 120 cm high, and weight 8-10 kg. According to Polybius, it was made from two wooden planks, covered first with a coarse fabric, and then with calfskin. The Roman Scutum was found in the Fayum oasis, the height of the shield is 128 cm, the width is 63.5 cm, made of birch boards.

During the battle, the Roman soldiers held the shield along the left side and pressed the enemy, leaning on the shield with their shoulders and helping themselves with a short sword.

Later scutums decreased in width, but somewhat lengthened, which made it possible to almost completely close the shield from the enemy.

The ancient Roman shield-scutum served as a reliable protection for the legionnaires, and in combination with combat tactics, the scutums created an impenetrable wall that reliably protected the Roman soldiers, the enemy could not break through the Roman system.

This issue is made on the basis of the three-volume “ military history” Razin and the book “On the Seven Hills” by M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdalsky. The issue is not a special historical study and is intended to help those involved in the manufacture of military miniatures.

Brief historical background

Ancient Rome is a state that conquered the peoples of Europe, Africa, Asia, Britain. Roman soldiers were famous all over the world for their iron discipline (but not always it was iron), brilliant victories. The Roman generals went from victory to victory (there were also cruel defeats), until all the peoples of the Mediterranean were under the weight of a soldier's boot.

The Roman army at different times had different numbers, the number of legions, and different formations. With the improvement of military art, weapons, tactics and strategy changed.

In Rome, there was universal conscription. Young men began to serve in the army from the age of 17 and up to 45 in field units, after 45 to 60 they served in fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempted from service. Service life also changed over time.

At one time, due to the fact that everyone wanted to serve in light infantry (weapons were cheap, they were purchased at their own expense), the citizens of Rome were divided into ranks. This was done under Servius Tullius. The 1st category included people who possessed property, which was estimated at no less than 100,000 copper asses, the 2nd - at least 75,000 asses, the 3rd - 50,000 asses, the 4th - 25,000 asses, the 5 -mu - 11.500 ass. All the poor were included in the 6th category - proletarians, whose wealth was only offspring ( proles). Each property category exhibited a certain number of military units - centuries (hundreds): 1st category - 80 centuries of heavy infantry, which were the main fighting force, and 18 centuries of horsemen; a total of 98 centuries; 2nd - 22; 3rd - 20; 4th - 22; 5th - 30 centuries of lightly armed and 6th category - 1 century, a total of 193 centuries. Lightly armed warriors were used as convoy servants. Thanks to the division into ranks, there was no shortage of heavily armed, lightly armed foot soldiers and horsemen. Proletarians and slaves did not serve because they were not trusted.

Over time, the state took over not only the maintenance of the warrior, but also withheld from him from the salary for food, weapons and equipment.

After a severe defeat at Cannes and in a number of other places, after the Punic Wars, the army was reorganized. Salaries were sharply increased, and proletarians were allowed to serve in the army.

Continuous wars required many soldiers, changes in weapons, formation, training. The army became mercenary. Such an army could be led anywhere and against anyone. This is what happened when Lucius Cornellius Sulla (1st century BC) came to power.

Organization of the Roman army

After the victorious wars of the IV-III centuries. BC. All the peoples of Italy fell under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some nations more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law “divide and rule”.

And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:

a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry attached to them;

b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to Italians who joined the legion);

c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.

The main tactical unit was the legion. At the time of Servius Tullius, the legion numbered 4,200 men and 900 cavalry, not counting the 1,200 lightly armed soldiers who were not part of the legion's line-up.

Consul Mark Claudius changed the order of the legion and weapons. This happened in the 4th century BC.

The legion was divided into maniples (in Latin - a handful), centuriae (hundreds) and decuria (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, squads.

Light infantry - velites (literally - fast, mobile) went ahead of the legion in a loose storyu and started a fight. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and to the flanks of the legion. In total there were 1200 people.

Hastati (from the Latin "hasta" - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple. They formed the first line of the legion. Principles (first) - 120 people in the maniple. Second line. Triaria (third) - 60 people in the maniple. Third line. The triarii were the most experienced and experienced fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: "It came to the triarii."

Each maniple had two centuries. There were 60 people in the centurion of hastati or principes, and there were 30 people in the centurion of triarii.

The legion was given 300 horsemen, which amounted to 10 tours. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.

At the very beginning of the application of the manipulative order, the legion went into battle in three lines, and if an obstacle was encountered that the legionnaires were forced to flow around, this resulted in a break in the battle line, the maniple from the second line hurried to close the gap, and the place of the maniple from the second line was occupied by the maniple from the third line . During the fight with the enemy, the legion represented a monolithic phalanx.

Over time, the third line of the legion began to be used as a reserve, deciding the fate of the battle. But if the commander incorrectly determined the decisive moment of the battle, the legion was waiting for death. Therefore, over time, the Romans switched to the cohort system of the legion. Each cohort numbered 500-600 people and, with an attached cavalry detachment, acting separately, was a legion in miniature.

Commanding staff of the Roman army

In tsarist times, the king was the commander. In the days of the republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded in turn. If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the head of the cavalry was subordinate, in contrast to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with individual parts of the army.

Individual legions were commanded by tribunes. There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving up their place to the second pair, and so on. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each centuria was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. The centurions had the right of a soldier for misdemeanors. They carried with them a vine - a Roman rod, this tool was rarely left idle. The Roman writer Tacitus spoke of one centurion, whom the whole army knew under the nickname: “Pass another!” After the reform of Marius, an associate of Sulla, the centurions of the triarii received big influence. They were invited to the military council.

As in our time, the Roman army had banners, drums, timpani, pipes, horns. The banners were a spear with a crossbar, on which a banner made of a single-color material hung. The maniples, and after the reform of Maria the cohorts, had banners. Above the crossbar there was an image of an animal (a wolf, an elephant, a horse, a boar…). If the unit performed a feat, then it was awarded - the award was attached to the flagpole; this custom has been preserved to this day.

The badge of the legion under Mary was a silver eagle or a bronze one. Under the emperors, it was made of gold. The loss of the banner was considered the greatest shame. Each legionnaire had to defend the banner to the last drop of blood. In a difficult moment, the commander threw the banner into the midst of enemies to encourage the soldiers to return it back and scatter the enemies.

The first thing the soldiers were taught was to relentlessly follow the badge, the banner. The standard-bearers were selected from strong and experienced soldiers and enjoyed great honor and respect.

According to the description of Titus Livius, the banners were a square cloth, laced to a horizontal bar, mounted on a pole. The color of the cloth was different. They were all monochromatic - purple, red, white, blue.

Until the allied infantry merged with the Romans, it was commanded by three prefects, chosen from among Roman citizens.

Great importance was attached to the quartermaster service. The head of the commissary service is the quaestor, who was in charge of fodder and food for the army. He oversaw the delivery of everything needed. In addition, each centuria had its own foragers. A special official, as a captain in modern army distributing food to the soldiers. At the headquarters there was a staff of scribes, bookkeepers, cashiers who gave out salaries to soldiers, priests-fortunetellers, military police officials, spies, signal trumpeters.

All signals were given by a pipe. The sound of the trumpet was rehearsed with curved horns. At the changing of the guard, they blew a fucina trumpet. The cavalry used a special long pipe, curved at the end. The signal to assemble the troops for the general meeting was given by all the trumpeters gathered in front of the commander's tent.

Training in the Roman army

The training of the fighters of the Roman manipulative legion, first of all, was to learn the soldiers to go forward on the orders of the centurion, to fill gaps in the battle line at the moment of collision with the enemy, to hasten to merge into the general mass. The execution of these maneuvers required more complex training than in the training of a warrior who fought in the phalanx.

The training also consisted in the fact that the Roman soldier was sure that he would not be left alone on the battlefield, that his comrades would rush to his aid.

The appearance of legions divided into cohorts, the complication of maneuver required more complex training. It is no coincidence that after the reform of Mary, one of his associates, Rutilius Rufus, introduced into the Roman army new system education, reminiscent of the system of training gladiators in gladiatorial schools. Only well-trained soldiers (trained) could overcome fear and get close to the enemy, attack from the rear on a huge mass of the enemy, feeling only a cohort nearby. Only a disciplined soldier could fight like that. Under Mary, a cohort was introduced, which included three maniples. The legion had ten cohorts, not counting the light infantry, and between 300 and 900 cavalry.

Fig. 3 - Cohort battle formation.

Discipline

The Roman army, famous for its discipline, unlike other armies of that time, was entirely in the power of the commander.

The slightest violation of discipline was punishable by death, as well as failure to comply with the order. So, in 340 BC. the son of the Roman consul Titus Manlius Torquata, during reconnaissance, without an order from the commander in chief, entered into battle with the head of the enemy detachment and defeated him. He talked about this in the camp with enthusiasm. However, the consul condemned him to death. The sentence was carried out immediately, despite the pleas of the entire army for mercy.

Ten lictors always walked in front of the consul, carrying bundles of rods (fascia, fascines). In wartime, an ax was inserted into them. The symbol of the consul's authority over his subordinates. First, the offender was flogged with rods, then they cut off their heads with an ax. If part or all of the army showed cowardice in battle, then decimation was carried out. Decem translated into Russian means ten. This is what Crassus did after the defeat of several legions by Spartacus. Several hundred soldiers were flogged and then executed.

If a soldier fell asleep at his post, he was put on trial and then beaten to death with stones and sticks. For minor offenses, they could be flogged, demoted, transferred to hard work, reduced salaries, deprived of citizenship, sold into slavery.

But there were also awards. They could be promoted in rank, increase salaries, reward with land or money, freed from camp work, awarded with insignia: silver and gold chains, bracelets. The award was given by the commander himself.

The usual awards were medals (falers) depicting the face of a god or a commander. Wreaths (crowns) were the highest insignia. Oak was given to a soldier who saved a comrade - a Roman citizen in battle. A crown with a battlement - to the one who first climbed the wall or rampart of an enemy fortress. A crown with two golden prows of ships, to the soldier who was the first to step onto the deck of an enemy ship. The siege wreath was given to the commander who lifted the siege from the city or fortress or liberated them. But the highest award - a triumph - was given to the commander for an outstanding victory, while at least 5,000 enemies were to be killed.

The victor rode in a gilded chariot, robed in purple and embroidered with palm leaves. The chariot was drawn by four white horses. War booty was carried in front of the chariot and prisoners were led. Relatives and friends, songwriters, soldiers followed the victor. There were triumphal songs. Every now and then the cries of “Io!” and "Triumph!" (“Io!” corresponds to our “Hurrah!”). The slave standing behind the victor on the chariot reminded him that he was a mere mortal and that he should not be arrogant.

For example, the soldiers of Julius Caesar, who were in love with him, followed him, joking and laughing at his baldness.

Roman camp

The Roman camp was well thought out and fortified. The Roman army was said to drag the fortress behind them. As soon as a halt was made, the construction of the camp immediately began. If it was necessary to move on, the camp was abandoned unfinished. Even broken for a short time, it differed from the one-day one by more powerful fortifications. Sometimes the army stayed in the camp for the winter. Such a camp was called a winter camp; houses and barracks were built instead of tents. By the way, on the site of some Roman tagers, cities such as Lancaster, Rochester and others arose. Cologne (the Roman colony of Agripinna), Vienna (Vindobona) grew out of the Roman camps… Cities, at the end of which there is “…chester” or “…kastr”, arose on the site of Roman camps. "Castrum" - camp.

The place for the camp was chosen on the southern dry slope of the hill. Nearby there should have been water and pasture for cart cattle, fuel.

The camp was a square, later a rectangle, the length of which was one third longer than the width. First of all, the place of the praetorium was planned. This is a square area, the side of which was 50 meters. The commander's tents, altars, and a platform for addressing the commander's soldiers were set up here; it was here that the court and the gathering of troops took place. To the right was the quaestor's tent, to the left the legates' tent. On both sides were placed the tents of the tribunes. In front of the tents, a street 25 meters wide passed through the entire camp, the main street was crossed by another, 12 meters wide. There were gates and towers at the ends of the streets. They were equipped with ballistas and catapults. (the same throwing weapon, got its name from a projectile, a ballista, a metal core, a catapult - arrows). Legionnaires' tents stood in regular rows on either side. From the camp, the troops could set out on a campaign without hustle and disorder. Each centuria occupied ten tents, maniples twenty. The tents had a plank frame, a gable plank roof and were covered with leather or coarse linen. Tent area from 2.5 to 7 sq. m. The decuria lived in it - 6-10 people, two of whom were constantly on guard. The tents of the Praetorian Guard and the cavalry were large. The camp was surrounded by a palisade, a wide and deep ditch and a rampart 6 meters high. There was a distance of 50 meters between the ramparts and the tents of the legionnaires. This was done so that the enemy could not light the tents. An obstacle course was arranged in front of the camp from several countervailing lines and barriers from pointed stakes, wolf pits, trees with pointed branches and woven together, forming an almost impassable obstacle.

Greaves have been worn by Roman legionnaires since ancient times. Under the emperors they were abolished. But the centurions continued to wear them. Leggings had the color of the metal from which they were made, sometimes they were painted.

In the time of Marius the banners were silver, in the time of the empire they were gold. The cloths were multicolored: white, blue, red, purple.

Rice. 7 - Weapons.

The cavalry sword is one and a half times longer than the infantry. The swords are single-edged, the handles were made of bone, wood, metal.

A pilum is a heavy spear with a metal tip and shaft. Serrated tip. Wooden tree. The middle part of the spear is wrapped tightly coil to coil with a cord. One or two tassels were made at the end of the cord. The tip of the spear and the rod were made of soft forged iron, up to iron - of bronze. The pilum was thrown at the enemy's shields. The spear that stuck into the shield pulled it to the bottom, and the warrior was forced to drop the shield, as the spear weighed 4-5 kg ​​and dragged along the ground, as the tip and rod were bent.

Rice. 8 - Scutums (shields).

Shields (scutums) acquired a semi-cylindrical shape after the war with the Gauls in the 4th century. BC e. Scutums were made from light, well-dried, aspen or poplar boards tightly fitted to each other, covered with linen, and bovine skin on top. Along the edge, the shields were bordered with a strip of metal (bronze or iron) and strips were placed in a cross through the center of the shield. In the center was placed a pointed plaque (umbon) - the pommel of the shield. Legionnaires kept in it (it was removable) a razor, money and other small things. On the inside there was a belt loop and a metal clip, the name of the owner and the number of the centurion or cohort were written. The skin could be dyed: red or black. The hand was pushed into the belt loop and taken by the bracket, thanks to which the shield hung tightly on the hand.

The helmet in the center is an earlier one, the one on the left is a later one. The helmet had three feathers 400 mm long; in ancient times, helmets were bronze, later iron. The helmet was sometimes decorated in the form of snakes on the sides, which at the top formed a place where feathers were inserted. In later times, the only decoration on the helmet was the crest. At the top of the Roman helmet was a ring through which a strap was threaded. The helmet was worn on the back or on the lower back, as a modern helmet is worn.

Roman velites were armed with javelins and shields. The shields were round, made of wood or metal. Velites were dressed in tunics, later (after the war with the Gauls) all legionnaires began to wear trousers. Some of the velites were armed with slings. The slingers had bags for stones on their right side, over the left shoulder. Some velites may have had swords. Shields (wooden) were covered with leather. The color of the clothes could be anything except purple and its shades. Velites could wear sandals or go barefoot. Archers in the Roman army appeared after the defeat of the Romans in the war with Parthia, where the consul Crassus and his son died. The same Crassus who defeated the troops of Spartacus under Brundisium.

Fig 12 - Centurion.

The centurions had silver-plated helmets, no shields, and the sword was worn on the right side. They had leggings and, as a distinctive sign on the armor, on the chest they had the image of a vine folded into a ring. During the manipulative and cohort construction of the legions, the centurions were on the right flank of the centuries, maniples, cohorts. The cloak is red, and all the legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and high commanders were allowed to wear purple cloaks.

Animal skins served as saddles. The Romans did not know stirrups. The first stirrups were rope loops. The horses were not forged. Therefore, the horses were very taken care of.

References

1. Military history. Razin, 1-2 vols., Moscow, 1987

2. On the seven hills (Essays on the culture of ancient Rome). M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdal; Leningrad, 1960.

3. Hannibal. Titus Livius; Moscow, 1947.

4. Spartacus. Raffaello Giovagnoli; Moscow, 1985.

5. Flags of the states of the world. K.I. Ivanov; Moscow, 1985.

6. History of ancient Rome, under the general editorship of V.I. Kuzishina; Moscow, 1981.

Publication:
Library of the Military History Commission - 44, 1989