Features of the structure of the digestive system of ruminants. Ruminant animals Ungulate domestic animal in human economic activity

27.11.2019

12.07.2016

Artiodactyl and equid-hoofed representatives of the fauna have a number of differences and dissimilar features not only in external data and structure, but also in behavior and life in nature. For most schoolchildren, it is rather problematic to distinguish between these two classes of mammals.

Speaking of horses, this family has one hoof, due to which it cannot even be visually attributed to the class of artiodactyls. Therefore, in addition to the theory in textbooks and books on zoology, according to external signs, both horses and various rhinos and representatives of tapirs are classified as equids. In total, there are about 17 species of such animals. Combined all outwardly different animals into one class of odd-toed ungulates, zoologist Richard Owen, having conducted a series of studies in the 19th century.

Signs of artiodactyls

In order to understand what they are distinctive features two classes of mammals - artiodactyls and equids among themselves, it is necessary to initially determine which families are included in their composition.

Artiodactyl animals include such representatives of the fauna:

ruminants - bulls, sheep, giraffes, deer, bison, pronghorns, as well as antelopes;
non-ruminant - pigs, hippos, bakers;
calluses, namely camels.

As a rule, the limbs of such animals end in a special case in the form of hooves. A distinctive feature of artiodactyls is the reduced first finger on the limbs, as well as underdeveloped second and fifth fingers. Usually, individuals of this type have large or medium body sizes, as well as an elongated muzzle, if they are ruminants, additional horns.

All the continents of the world are inhabited by artiodactyls, the only exception was Antarctica. Previously, these creatures were not on the territory of the island of Australia, but thanks to the efforts of man, this “defect” was corrected. Most often, animals of the class of artiodactyls inhabit the steppe and flat areas, tundra, deserts, savannahs. Much less often they can be found in forests and thickets.

The main differences between artiodactyls and equids are in the following points:

Artiodactyl representatives of the fauna have a hoof with a pair of fingers, in turn, equids have a limb with an odd number of fingers covered with a hoof.
In the wild, representatives of the class of artiodactyls are more common throughout the world, their "opponents" for weeks.
In addition, artiodactyl animals have a complicated form of digestion, suggesting a multi-chambered stomach.

Why is a horse equine?

In addition to the horse (donkeys and zebras), the following animals belong to the group of equids: the families of tapirs and rhinos. Initially, such representatives of the fauna were widely distributed everywhere except Australia and Antarctica. As already known, the horse belongs to the equid-hoofed class, as it has a single solid hoof, which is marked and focused on the third toe. The remaining fingers, namely the second and fourth fingers, are so underdeveloped by nature that they do not reach the ground.

The next sign by which a horse belongs to this class of animals is its digestive system. In such creatures, the digestion of food does not take place in the stomach, as many have assumed, but in the large intestine. Due to this, there is no need for such creatures to have a multi-chamber stomach; in their structure, scientists discovered a single-chamber organ. In general, both horses and other equids belong to this category due to the odd number of active "walking" toes.

In addition, there are a number of typical distinguishing features of equids:

between the talus and navicular bone, a special additional joint is assumed, due to which the mobility of the limbs decreases;
oblong head shape and long upper jaw;
there is a wide contact between the lacrimal and nasal bones;
the horns are made of keratin;
enlarged lower jaw and deepened jaw joint.

According to all the above signs and characteristics, the equine family is a clear representative of the class of equids.

Characteristic features of a horse as an artiodactyl animal

In addition to the above obvious differences between artiodactyl horses and other species of artiodactyl animals, there are a number of secondary characteristics of these noble animals. Such animals lead a more active lifestyle during twilight and night. They feed exclusively on vegetation, namely leaves and herbs, as well as other parts of plants.

In addition, equine animals, namely horses, give small offspring and suggest a long gestation period. Usually during childbirth, individuals give one cub at a time. In captivity, animals can live up to 50 years.

Ruminants feed on fiber, which they can only digest with the help of bacteria.[ ...]

A goat is a ruminant animal. She has a four-chambered stomach, including a scar, mesh, booklet, abomasum.[ ...]

The stomach of ruminants (for example, deer, cattle and antelopes) consists of four sections, and swallowed food first enters one of them, which is called the mesh. The first chewing leads to grinding food to particles with a volume of 1-1000 μl, and some of them can reach a length of 10 cm. Only particles with a volume of no more than 5 μl can pass from the grid to the next section of the stomach, the book; larger animals regurgitate and chew again (continuous "cud chewing" process). The scar is inhabited by numerous bacteria (1010-1011 in 1 ml) and protozoa (105-106 in 1 ml); The pH of the environment in it is regulated by the animal due to the secretion by the salivary glands of a secret containing 100-140 mm bicarbonate and 10-50 mm phosphate. Thus, the continuous influx of substrates and control of the conditions of its fermentation by microorganisms is provided by the host itself, and the products of microbial fermentation are the main source of nutrition for it (Fig. 13.4).[ ...]

When administered parenterally to ruminants, the metabolism of this pesticide does not differ significantly from the changes that it undergoes in the body of animals of other species. LDbo DNOC for sheep when ingested through the mouth is 200 mg / kg, for goats - 100 mg / kg.[ ...]

Herbivores, in order to digest plant food, need to chew it thoroughly (ruminants), and birds grind it in their muscular stomach. Carnivores do not need to chew anything at all, since in the meat of the victim all the components they need for life are contained in a form ready for assimilation, so the food can be swallowed whole.[ ...]

It is important to observe the mode of watering animals. During water starvation in animals, water-salt metabolism is disturbed. There is a thickening of the blood. The activity of organs and systems is disrupted. The productivity of animals, especially lactating cows, is sharply reduced. During grazing, animals are recommended to drink at least 3 times a day: the first time - 2 hours after the start of grazing; the last time - 2 hours before its end. High-yielding cows are watered 4-5 times a day. The need of cows for water especially increases after milking. Watering cattle and sheep immediately after feeding clover or alfalfa can lead to swelling (tympania) of the rumen and death of the animals. Therefore, when grazing on legumes, ruminants are recommended to drink water no earlier than 2.5-3 hours after eating.[ ...]

The mutualistic nature of the connection between ruminants and rumen microflora is obvious: the microbes receive a constant source of food and fairly stable conditions, and the animal receives substances available for digestion from feed, ¡which cannot be processed using its own enzymes.[ ...]

During rest, the physical activity of animals is limited. They take a peculiar pose, their body is relaxed, their eyes are usually closed. During this period, the process of chewing food is activated in ruminants (when the animal moves, it is weakened and even suppressed). Timely provision of rest helps to improve digestion, increase the productivity of animals, and prevent their morbidity.[ ...]

We have seen that, both among plants and among animals, there are very diverse relationships that can be considered a mutualistic symbiosis. This includes the associations of two completely different organisms, connected by behavioral reactions, but spending part of their life cycle independently of each other and retaining individual characteristics (gobies and shrimps, bluebird butterflies and ants). Next in terms of complexity are chemostat-type ecosystems (strictly external to tissues) in the rumen of ruminants and the caecum of termites; then - intercellular ectomycorrhiza and intracellular zooxanthellae of the coelenterates. These stages can be regarded as successive stages of integration - first individual members of the community, and then, as it were, parts of one "organism".[ ...]

Fenuron has a gonadotropic effect on ruminants; this explains the fact that intoxication of animals with this drug is accompanied by abortions.[ ...]

For poisoning of farm animals with herbicides of this group, the following symptoms are characteristic: salivation, body trembling, lethargy, general depression, tympania (in ruminants), lack of appetite, and sometimes impaired coordination of movements.[ ...]

That part of the preparation which is absorbed by the tissues of the animal decomposes, apparently as a result of hydrolysis, to pyruvic, acetic acids and CO2. In the rumen of ruminants, dalapon is not exposed to microflora.[ ...]

In order for tree greens to be better absorbed by animals, it must be crushed. In unground form, ruminants are fed with green leaves, small leafy branches (up to 6 mm in diameter), fresh bark of young trees, although it is better to grind them as well.[ ...]

The collection is devoted to the physiology and biochemistry of the protein nutrition of ruminants of various directions of productivity and age. The modern concepts of feed protein assessment and rationing of nitrogenous substances for animals are presented. The effect of diets with different levels of digestible protein on productivity and metabolism in cows is shown. Principles new system protein nutrition of highly productive cows.[ ...]

Energy nutritional value of feed. Energy is t[ ...]

In deeper layers of soil and sediments (as well as in the body of large animals, for example, in the rumen of ruminants, where anaerobic conditions exist), the content of CO2 increases, and oxygen becomes a limiting factor for aerobes. The role of man in the CO2 cycle was considered in Chap. four.[ ...]

The transformation of fiber by microbes in the complex stomach of ruminants has been studied in great detail (Hangate, 1963). This system is an environment with a continuous supply of nutrients to high level. Activities can be characterized using a parameter such as speed, assuming that they are constant. Using this principle, Hungate and colleagues found out which organisms are involved in the transformation of fiber, and determined the end products and energy balance of the entire system. Since this system is anaerobic, it is inefficient for bacterial growth (only 10% of the energy is assimilated by bacteria), but it is precisely because of this inefficiency that ruminants can even exist on such a substrate as fiber. The main part of the energy obtained as a result of the activity of microbes is stored in fatty acids, which are formed from fiber, but do not decompose further. Ruminants can directly assimilate these end products. Thus, the term "efficiency" can be quite misleading. In this example, anaerobic metabolism is inefficient for bacteria, but highly efficient for ruminants.[ ...]

It is known that the microbiological processes occurring in the intestines of farm animals (especially ruminants) play a huge role in digestion. The content of microorganisms in the alimentary canal is very high (up to 1 billion different bacteria can be found in 1 g of c la or the contents of the rumen), their composition is diverse. All these organisms in the process of life form and secrete into the intestines various substances that can be beneficial or toxic to the animal.[ ...]

While lead enters the human body through the food chain from plant foods through the liver and kidneys of ruminants, mercury mainly accumulates in fish and shellfish and also in the liver and kidneys of mammals. In the 1970s, when mercury-containing preparations were widely used in seed treatment, accidents were reported when working with treated seed. Mercury enters the body mainly in the form of methyl compounds (see Equation 3.19). It is accepted that the annual dose for an adult is 18 mg of mercury or 10 mg of methylmercury; the actual dose in Germany is about 5.7 mg per year.[ ...]

Ungulates are divided into two orders: equids (horse, donkey, zebra, rhinoceros, tapir), these are herbivorous animals; artiodactyls (deer, cows, giraffes, goats, sheep) herbivorous ruminants.[ ...]

Mutualism brings benefits to both partners - in symbiosis it is vital, in proto-cooperation it is not very significant. So, ruminants and microorganisms of their rumen cannot exist without each other, and hydra, on the contrary, can live without chlorella algae, like that one without it.[ ...]

These bacteria live under strictly anaerobic conditions in the silt of reservoirs, in swamps and other places, as well as in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals. Especially a lot of them in the rumen of ruminants.[ ...]

Animal farms can be another source of methane, since CH4 is spontaneously released in manure storages. According to some reports, ruminants emit up to 15% of all methane into the atmosphere.[ ...]

For goats, vitamins A, D and E are of the greatest importance. Other vitamins, for example, group B, are synthesized in the rumen, due to which ruminants cover the need for them.[ ...]

Some other mutualistic connections are already important to the community. Wood is one of the main biological resources of our planet, but there are very few higher animals in the world that are able to digest cellulose and lignins, these main components of wood. In the zone of a cold temperate climate, the decomposition of wood is carried out mainly by higher fungi. In warm temperate and tropical climates a lot of dead wood is consumed by termites, which contain in their digestive tract special flagellar protozoa that can use wood as food. From this partnership, the protozoa get a home and a supply of termite-crushed wood particles for food, and the termites feed on the excess sugars they get from the over-digested wood they need. Large herbivorous mammals need symbiotic bacteria living in the rumen, a special part of the stomach of ruminants, to digest plant tissues. Some higher plants (especially legumes) depend on a partnership with nitrogen-fixing bacteria that settle in the roots of these species: the plant supplies the bacteria with food, and the bacteria supply the plant with nitrogen.[ ...]

It was along the path of strengthening symbioses that many of the original life forms evolved before they became single living organisms. For example, the microorganisms that inhabit the food tract of ruminants are not part of the cow's body at all. But only they are able to form fatty acids from the fiber eaten by the cow, which the cow can assimilate. Cows cannot digest fiber directly, and therefore they will die of starvation if their food tract is sterilized, even if there is an abundance of herbs around. Bacteria, in turn, in the cow's alimentary tract are provided with a stable environment with a constant temperature.[ ...]

The rumen micro-organisms are constantly multiplying and at the same time decreasing in numbers as its contents pass into the intestines. Further digestion of food, including some microbes, occurs in the intestine due to the ruminant's own enzymes. The main products of digestion in the rumen are volatile fatty acids (acids (acetic, propionic, butyric), ammonia, carbon dioxide and methane. Fatty acids are absorbed and serve as the main source of carbon nutrition for the ruminant. Especially important is propionic acid, the only one that can be converted by these animals into carbohydrates and is indispensable for their metabolism - substances, especially during lactation.[ ...]

The content of cobalt in plants primarily depends on the presence of its soluble compounds in the soil. The lack of cobalt in some soils (less than 2...2.5 mg/kg of soil) leads to a decrease in its content in plants, which in turn causes a serious disease of animals that feed on these plants. The reduced content of cobalt in feed - less than 0.07 mg/kg of dry matter - leads to a sharp decrease in the productivity of farm animals; live weight gain decreases, milk yields decrease. Cobalt regulates metabolism and promotes blood formation. With its deficiency in ruminants, the content of vitamin B12 is sharply reduced in the rumen, liver, and also in milk. The amount of other important vitamins also decreases.[ ...]

Cellulose is the main food for these organisms and an enzyme is needed to digest it. There is also evidence of the formation of cellulase in higher plants, where its role seems to be to soften the cell walls before their growth. For higher plants and most higher animals (except ruminants), cellulose is not a nutrient. Since cellulose is insoluble, it must be broken down outside the cell membrane, i.e., on the surface of the fungal cell or at some distance from it. At the points of contact of fungal hyphae with the cell walls of cellulose materials, holes are formed, and the dissolution of the cell walls is observed even at some distance from the penetrating hyphae. During cultivation, fungi secrete cellulolytic enzymes into the culture medium. Almost nothing is known about the secretion mechanism, although it can be assumed that live cells are secreted, and not dead ones.[ ...]

Methane (CH4) also plays a significant role in the greenhouse effect, accounting for approximately 19% of its total value (as of 1995). Methane is produced in anaerobic conditions such as various types of natural swamps, seasonal and permafrost layers, rice plantations, landfills, and also as a result of the activity of ruminants and termites. Estimates show that about 20% of total methane emissions are associated with fossil fuel technologies (fuel combustion, emissions from coal mines, natural gas production and distribution, oil refining). In total, anthropogenic activity provides 60-80% of the total methane emission into the atmosphere.[ ...]

In the USA and elsewhere foreign countries for feed purposes, a special grade of urea with a content of 42% N is used. However, practice has shown that urea with a content of 45-46% nitrogen can also be used. In France, urea (44% N) is produced, which is supplied in microgranules, processed in a special way to improve the appetite of ruminants. In the USSR, to improve the efficiency of animal husbandry, the production of carbamide concentrate is being organized. This product must have a protein equivalent (total nitrogen in terms of a factor of 6.25) in the range of 40-80%.[ ...]

Adaptations can be morphological, expressed in the adaptation of the structure (shape) of organisms to environmental factors, an example is the difference in the size of the auricles in forest and steppe hedgehogs; physiological - adaptation of the digestive tract to the composition of food, an example is the structure of the stomach with the presence of an additional section in ruminant herbivores; behavioral or environmental - adaptation of animal behavior to temperature conditions, humidity, etc., an example is hibernation in a number of animals: rodents, bears, etc.[ ...]

Carbohydrates are the most important source of energy in the body, which is released as a result of redox reactions. It has been established that the oxidation of 1 g of carbohydrate is accompanied by the formation of energy in the amount of 4.2 kcal. Cellulose is not digested in the gastrointestinal tract of vertebrates due to the lack of a hydrolyzing enzyme. It is digested only in the body of ruminants (large and small cattle, camels, giraffes and others). As for starch and glycogen, they are easily broken down by amylase enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract of mammals. Glycogen in the gastrointestinal tract is broken down to glucose and some maltose, but in animal cells it is broken down by glycogen phosphorylase to form glucose-1-phosphate. Finally, carbohydrates serve as a kind of nutritional reserve of cells, being stored in them in the form of glycogen in animal cells and starch in plant cells.[ ...]

After 1970, the range of feed phosphates produced by the industry has expanded significantly. If for two decades the main feed phosphate was precipitate, then in last years such feed additives appeared as fluorine-free phosphate, monocalcium phosphate, etc. For ruminants with a large excess of calcium in the diets, it is necessary to use calcium-free supplements: ammonium phosphates and dipatrppphosphate.[ ...]

Let's focus on carbohydrates. In biochemical analyzes of feed, they appear under the heading "nitrogen-free extractive substances" (NES). These are the most digestible carbohydrates (monosaccharides and polysaccharides), but other substances, such as tannins, also fall into this rubric. However, we find carbohydrates in analyzes and under the heading "crude fiber", but these are poorly digestible and indigestible carbohydrates (cellulose, lignin, chitin). Few game animals (ruminants) can absorb them, and then only partially. Hence, the more crude fiber in the feed, the lower its nutritional quality. Examples of such feeds are rose hips (46.9% fiber), reed grass species (29.3-37.8%).[ ...]

The ecological balance in ecosystems is maintained by complex mechanisms of relationships between living organisms and environmental conditions and between individuals of the same species and individuals of different species with each other. The relationship between organisms of the same trophic level is called horizontal, and the relationship between organisms of different trophic levels is called vertical. Organisms of the same trophic level (plants, phytophagous animals, predators, detritivores) are connected mainly by competition for resource consumption, i.e. competition. Competition arises when some resource is not enough. In animals, less often in plants, mutual assistance can be noted. Relations between organisms of different trophic levels are more diverse. The main type of relationship is predation, eating an organism of a lower trophic level (plants - herbivores, herbivores - predators of the first order, predators of the first order - larger predators of the second order). There are widespread symbiotic relationships between plants and pollinators, plants and symbiotrophic fungi and bacteria, ruminant herbivores and microorganisms that live in the digestive tract, and so on. All these relationships in a natural ecosystem are aimed at maintaining its ecological balance.[ ...]

Up to 10 technologies and their numerous variations are known using mycelial and yeast-like micromycetes for cooking /?5, 220, 4007. Different authors used Peecylomycea verioti, Áepergillue niger, A.oryzee, Rhizopus oryzae, Mucor ra-oemoeue, Fuserium moniliforme, Chaetomium globoeum, Pénicillium sp., Pénicillium chryaogemim from thermophiles - Sporotriohum pul-▼erulentum, S.thermophile, Chaetomium cellulolyticum. Straw and other cellulose-containing roughage occupy a significant share in the feed balance of ruminants. As you know, these types of feed have a low digestibility coefficient; the breakdown of the predominant polymers of roughage (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, etc.) is mainly carried out by anaerobic cellulose-destroying bacterial flora in the rumen of animals. In this regard, the problem of increasing the digestibility of rough cory, their availability for digestion by the microflora of the digestive tract and increasing the nutritional value is very important in the overall activities of creating a forage base for animal husbandry.[ ...]

There is a very significant danger that radioactive isotopes in sewage will get into plants cultivated in irrigated fields. When these waters are irrigated, the grass becomes radioactive. Cows, eating this grass, begin to secrete radioactive milk. At the same time, some radioactive isotopes, such as Cs137, pass into milk at a concentration five times higher than that introduced. The same isotope is deposited in the meat of ruminants in an amount of up to 5% of the introduced concentration (Klechkovsky, 1956).

ruminant animals. Chewing cud artiodactyl mammals. These include Johnston's okapi, deer, deer, giraffes, antelopes, cattle, sheep, and goats. All ruminants, except deer, have a four-chamber STOMACH. They got their name... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

- (animals). The Old Testament Law classified animals with cloven hooves and fat as clean animals; their flesh could be eaten (Lev. 11:3 et seq.; Deut. 14:6). The exceptions among gum chewers were camel, jerboa and hare, because they … Brockhaus Bible Encyclopedia

- (Ruminantia), a suborder of artiodactyls. Known from the Upper Eocene; descended from primitive deer. For the most part slender, high-legged animals, with four, rarely two toes with hooves. Top, no incisors; instead of them, a dense callused roller ... Biological encyclopedic dictionary

RUMINANTS- Ruminants, Ruminantia, a group of artiodactyl mammals (Artiodactyla) belonging to the order Ungulates (Ungu lata). The legs of artiodactyls bear an even number of fingers due to the reduction of the first toe; the second and fifth fingers are usually developed ... ... Big Medical Encyclopedia

Ruminants ... Wikipedia

- (Ruminantia) suborder of mammals of the artiodactyl order. The stomach in most of the stomach consists of 4 sections: scar, mesh, book, and abomasum; in some females, the 3rd section (book) is absent. In the process of digestion, an important role is played by ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

- (Cotylophora) a group of mammals that includes typical ruminants. This name is based on the structure of the fetal nutritional organs during intrauterine development. In mammals, it is on the outer germinal membrane (serous) of the embryo ... ...

Mammals in which the afterbirth (placenta, see) is equipped with villi, more or less evenly distributed over the entire surface of the serous membrane (chorion), and is called blurry, or spilled (placenta diffusa). These include:…… Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

- (Bovidae) ** * * The family of bovids, or bovines, is the most extensive and diverse group of artiodactyls, includes 45-50 modern genera and about 130 species. Bovids form a natural, clearly defined group. No matter how ... ... Animal life

Domestic artiodactyl ruminants of the family of bovids of the genus of real bulls. Descended from the wild bull of the tour. Bred mainly for milk and meat. The average annual milk yield of dairy cows is 4 5 thousand kg, the maximum is about 20 thousand kg; ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Gaur is a rare artiodactyl animal, not known to a wide range of nature lovers. This infamy looks unfair, because the gaur, along with the bison, shares the title of the largest wild bull on the planet. But if the bison claims the first place only due to its weight, then the gaur deserves the palm due to its size. From the point of view of taxonomy, the closest relative of this ungulate is banteng, and more distant are bison, bison and buffalo.

Gaur (Bos frontalis).

At first glance at the gaura, its colossal dimensions are striking: old males can reach a record 330 cm in length and 220 cm at the withers! The length of their tail reaches 1 m, the length of the horns is up to 115 cm, the weight can reach 1 ton, and according to some sources, even more. Females are about a quarter smaller. Most surprising of all, with such a size, the gaur does not at all give the impression of a heavy and clumsy animal. His heavy, broad-browed head is compensated by a well-developed neck, high withers and sloping shoulders - by strong and slender legs. In a word, the gaur looks like a real athlete.

The gaur's short coat accentuates its prominent musculature.

The color of these bulls is brown, turning into almost black in the area of the head, neck and upper legs. The lower part of the legs is white, the nasal mirror is light. The horns diverge to the sides, and then bend up and slightly back, while their lower part is off-white, and the ends are black. Sexual dimorphism is reduced only to the indicated difference in size and thinner horns in females. By the way, this allows you to accurately distinguish gaurs from bantengs, in which males are similarly colored, and females, on the contrary, are bright red.

Old male on vacation.

Once the range of Gaurs covered the vast expanses of South and Southeast Asia: from the Hindustan Peninsula to the Indochina Peninsula, Malaysia, China, Nepal and Bhutan. Today, gaurs are still found in these territories, but their populations are very few and scattered, and in Sri Lanka this species has been completely destroyed. These bulls inhabit humid evergreen forests, and they prefer hilly areas with sparse stands and avoid impenetrable thickets. In the mountains, gaurs rise to a height of 2000-2800 m, but at the same time they regularly visit the valleys.

Female with young.

In search of such food, they can visit pastures, but they never grass crops in the fields.

The diet of gaurs includes all kinds of herbs, bamboo shoots and branches of shrubs.

Like domestic cattle, these animals need a lot of minerals and water.

They satisfy the need for minerals by licking mud, but, unlike Indian buffaloes, they do not like to wallow in puddles all day long.

The character of the gauras matches their appearance. As befits strong men who are aware of their power, these animals radiate invincible calmness, equanimity and ... caution. The last quality is explained, of course, not by cowardice, but simply by the unwillingness to enter into conflicts that are not worthy of their attention.

In case of danger, gaurs simply move away with a quick step, and they move in the thick of the forest extremely quietly.

These animals show the same friendliness towards each other. Their herds consist of 8-11 females with calves, males are kept alone. The old female matriarch controls the herd, males join the herd only during mating. Separate herds adhere to a certain area, but can sometimes unite in groups of up to 50 individuals. It is noteworthy that in pastures, these bulls can create mixed herds even with sambars (Indian deer).

Gauras breed all year round, but most often mating occurs between November and April. Males roar loudly during the rut, but fights between them are rare. As a rule, applicants limit themselves to demonstrating serious intentions, lowering their heads low and directing one horn towards the opponent. Pregnancy lasts 270-280 days, usually one calf is born, twins very rarely occur. At the time of childbirth, the female retires into the thick of bushes and returns to the herd already with the baby. She feeds the calf with milk for up to 7-12 months (up to 9 on average). Young become sexually mature at 2-3 years, and the maximum life expectancy for gaurs reaches 30 years.

A gaura bull in a characteristic menacing pose.

These giants have few enemies. The scariest of them all is the human. People, firstly, displace gaurs from their habitats, developing lands, cutting down forests, occupying the best watering places. Secondly, livestock infect gaurs with dangerous infections, and if domestic animals can get help from a veterinarian, then wild bulls die. Young gaurs are sometimes attacked by crocodiles, leopards and tigers. By the way, the tiger is the only predator capable of killing an adult bull. Caution, sensitivity and strength help gauras avoid dangers. In case of danger, they snort loudly, and if the enemy is within sight, adults attack him with a special lateral movement. In this case, the predator has every chance of being impaled on the horn and thrown a considerable distance, which is often tantamount to death.

Even tigers prefer to bypass the mighty giants, and attack only when they fail to catch smaller prey.

Despite such impressive self-defense, gauras have long been tamed. Their domesticated form - gayal - is not very common compared to buffaloes. Guyals are distinguished by their smaller stature, more massive physique, and short horns. From their wild ancestors, they inherited calmness and are very much appreciated for this complaisance. They are used as draft power and a source of meat. But the fate of wild gaurs does not yet inspire optimism. The widespread undermining of the food supply, the destruction of suitable habitats lead to an inexorable reduction in numbers throughout the range. That is why gaurs were listed in the International Red Book, and you can see these beauties only in some reserves and the largest zoos.

- Artiodactyla). Most ruminants have four-chambered stomachs. The upper incisors are reduced or sometimes absent. However, camels and deer have a three-chambered stomach. Ruminants eat quickly, accumulating grass or leaves in the first chamber of the stomach, the rumen, where it softens. They later regurgitate this material, called cud, and chew it again to further break down the hard-to-digest cellulose. The gum goes directly to the other chambers of the stomach (the mesh, the booklet and the abomasum), where it is further digested by the various microorganisms that inhabit the stomach. Ruminants are also herbivores.

Ruminants include representatives of 6 families of artiodactyl animals:

pronghorn

pronghorn antelope ( Antilocapra americana listen)) is a species of artiodactyl mammal that lives in the western and central regions. It is the only surviving species in its family. Although the animal does not belong to the antelopes, it is often called that in its homeland. This is due to the similarity of pronghorn antelopes with real antelopes of the Old World. In addition, they occupy similar ones.

Pronghorn antelopes prefer open areas located at an altitude of less than 2000 km. The largest populations are found in areas that receive annual rainfall ranging from 25 to 40 cm. They eat a wide variety of herbal products, often including plants unsuitable or poisonous for domestic animals (sheep and cattle). Although they also compete with them for food.

Giraffe

giraffe family (Giraffidae) consists of two modern species - (Giraffa camelopardalis) and okapi ( Okapia johnstoni). Giraffes live in sub-Saharan Africa. Their preferred habitats are wooded and open. Giraffes are the tallest on our planet. They can reach a height of about 6 m.

The giraffe is a herbivore that mainly feeds on leaves. Due to its height and length, the giraffe collects leaves from the tops of trees. This ruminant is able to absorb up to 65 kg of food per day. Giraffes especially love the leaves of the acacia tree.

Acacia leaves contain a lot of moisture, which helps the giraffe long time do without drinking water. This helps the animal to survive. When a giraffe leans down to drink, it's hard for him to keep track of approaching predators!

Okapi are common in the rainforests of the DRC in central Africa. This animal was not discovered by scientists until 1900. Okapi has a height at the withers of up to 1.7 m. It has black and white striped legs, a dark brown body, large ears and a long tail. The stripes on the legs of the okapi help the animal to camouflage itself in the rainforest.

Like the giraffe, the okapi has a long, dark tongue that it uses to reach leaves and buds from trees or shrubs. The growth of the animal allows it to gather food from the ground (and not just from the tops of the trees, like the giraffe). The okapi diet also consists of herbs, ferns, mushrooms and fruits.

musk deer

Musk deer is the only living genus in the musk deer family. (Moschidae), which includes 7 modern species. The habitat of these animals stretches from the Eastern Himalayas and Tibet to Eastern Siberia, Korea, and Sakhalin. They inhabit, as a rule, steep slopes overgrown with coniferous vegetation. Musk deer inhabit areas at an altitude of less than 1000 m, but in Tibet and the Himalayas they can be found several kilometers higher.

Musk deer are objects of poaching because they have a musky gland, which is used in perfumery and soap making. Males have two protruding fangs that grow throughout the life of the animal. These fangs can reach up to 10 cm in length.

The diet of musk deer consists of tree lichens, twigs, leaves, tree bark, grass, moss and even mushrooms. In winter, they feed on epiphytic and terrestrial lichens. These dietary features determine the distribution of animals in an isolated habitat.

Reindeer

Deer family ( Cervidae) includes about 50 species placed in three subfamilies: New World deer ( Capriolinae), Old World deer ( Cervinae) and water deer ( hydropotes). However, the classification of deer has always been controversial, and the phylogenetic and taxonomic history has yet to be established. Deer weight varies from 9 to 800 kg, and all but one species - the Chinese water deer - have antlers.

Deer can be found in a wide range of habitats, from extremely cold to . They have been introduced almost everywhere in the world, but are native to most of the New World, and the Northwest. Although Eurasia has become home to the greatest diversity of species. Deer live in deciduous forests, wetlands, grasslands, rainforests and get along especially well in alpine.

All deer are strictly herbivores, and their diet consists of grass, shrubs, and leaves. All members of the family chew gum, have three or four chambered stomachs, and support microorganisms that break down cellulose. Unlike many other ruminants, deer selectively forage on easily digestible vegetation rather than consuming all available food.

deer

Deer ( Tragulidae) is a small family of artiodactyls, which includes 3 genera. These animals are common in Southeast Asia and Africa. They usually lead a solitary and nocturnal lifestyle. Reindeer prefer dense vegetation on forest soil.

Members of the family have a small body size; the largest individuals weigh about 4.5 kg. Their fur is brown. White spots and stripes are visible on the body. Deer bodies appear small and compact, and their legs are quite thin.

The stomach of these mammals is three-chambered (since the book is poorly developed), and they are ruminants. Their diet consists of herbs, leaves, and some fruits, but they also feed on small mammals and sometimes even carrion.

bovids

Bovid family ( Bovidae) is the largest of 10 surviving families in the order Artiodactyls ( Artiodactyla). It consists of over 140 living and 300 extinct species. Subfamily designation within Bovidae has always been controversial, and many experts disagree with the classification.

Bovids are common in Africa, most of Europe, Asia and North America. The meadow is the preferred habitat for these mammals. Their dentition, hoofed limbs, and specialization of the gastrointestinal tract likely resulted from their grazing lifestyle. All bovids have four-chambered stomachs and at least one pair of horns, which are commonly present in both males and females.

Although bovids are herbivores, they sometimes supplement their diet with animal products. Large species consume vegetation that contains more cellulose and lignin than smaller species. However, all bovids maintain microbial communities ( , protozoa and ) within their rumen. These micro-organisms help break down cellulose and lignin, and turn fibrous feed into a plentiful source of energy.

Mammals from this family have played an important role in human cultural evolution, as numerous species of artiodactyls have been domesticated by humans.